In former studies, the effectiveness of various mobile devices and technologies on vocabulary learning has been investigated. Different functions of mobile devices, such as Short Message Service (SMS) and Multimedia Message Service (MMS) have been employed for mobile-assisted vocabulary learning. More attention has been given to mobile applications (apps) recently. Various innovative mobile systems for
vocabulary learning have also been developed and explored by researchers (Cavus &
Ibrahim, 2009; Chen & Chung, 2008; Chen & Hsu, 2008; Huang, Huang, Huang, &
Lin, 2012; Stockwell, 2007; 2010). In addition, the design-oriented studies on mobile-assisted vocabulary learning have also been discussed in previous research.
According to Chinnery (2006), SMS is one of the mobile phone features that enable communicative language practice. SMS has been frequently used in studies for vocabulary learning. Thornton and Houser (2001; 2005) reported their ‘learning on the move’ (LOTM) in Japan, in which mini lessons for vocabulary learning were sent to students via SMS. The results show that the short mini lessons could serve as
‘push’ media that promote students to study at regular intervals, and thus these spaced presentations were expected to create the advantage in memory performance called spacing effect (Greene, 1989). In Levy and Kennedy’s (2005) study, the Italian learning materials were sent to a group of Australian university students via mobile SMS. The messages included Italian words and idioms, definitions, and example sentences. The students could learn in between the lessons and tutorials of the course.
The use of SMS for vocabulary learning was proved to be successful, and almost all the students reported positive attitudes towards receiving learning materials on their mobile phones. Similar results can also be found in the further study by the same researchers (Kennedy & Levy, 2008).
In line with Thornton and Houser (2005), Lu (2008) examined the effectiveness of SMS vocabulary lessons for high school students in Taiwan. The SMS lessons were named learning vocabulary via mobile phone (LVMP). The target words were listed with Chinese translations and syntactic categories and sent in the SMS messages. The results show that the mobile group of students had greater vocabulary gains than the paper group. That students reported that they could read their messages literally anytime, everywhere – in commuting, between classes, or even before going to bed and in general took positive attitudes towards learning vocabulary via mobile phone for its portability, immediacy, novelty, legibility, and the spacing effect it generated, which was similar to the findings in Thornton and Houser’s (2005) study. The researcher concluded that the mobile phone can be a more effective medium for self-learning English vocabulary than the paper material in that it arouses learners’
motivation, which in turn increases frequency of reading the lessons and maximizes the exposure to the target language. Also, the SMS vocabulary lessons were likely to provide several of the optimal psychological conditions for effective vocabulary activity (Nation, 2001).
Later, Cavus and Ibrahim (2009) conducted a study with the purpose of investigating the use of wireless technologies in learning new technical English language words by using SMS text messaging. The researchers designed a system
called the Mobile Learning Tool (MOLT), in which SMS text messages were formatted and sent to the mobile phone attached to the PC via the Bluetooth interface.
The descriptions of the meanings were chosen as short as possible so that they were easy to read. All of the participants expressed their satisfaction and enjoyment of learning away from the classroom, and the survey results are very positive and in favor of the mobile phone-based teaching system. More recently, Zhang, Song and Burston (2011) reexamined the effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phones. The results show that there was a significant difference in the posttests but not in the delayed tests between the SMS group and the paper group. The study concludes that vocabulary learning through SMS is effective, while it also suggests a blended approach to vocabulary learning for better increasing the effectiveness from the perspective of sustained retention rates.
In addition to SMS, the effects of Multimedia Message Service (MMS) have also been explored in previous studies. In Thornton and Houser (2005), there is another study focusing on the investigation of the usability of mobile devices as instructional delivery tools for multimedia including animation, video, and sound. The researchers created a series of web pages presenting English idioms (Vidioms).
Students used video-capable mobile phones or PDAs to watch the computer animations and video clips, and they also did multiple-choice quizzes on the same platform. Although students using different devices rated highly its educational effectiveness, the PDA users gave significant higher rating to the quality of video than the mobile phone users. The differences may be derived from the different screen sizes of the two mobile devices.
Concerning one of the most critical problems in mobile learning, the limited screen size, the issue of content adaptation in mobile language learning environments has also been addressed. Chen, Hsieh and Kinshuk (2008) conducted a study to discuss how to present the learning materials using different Learning Content Representation (LCR) types on mobile devices. The purpose of the study was to explore how to better match different instructional strategies (LCR types) for presenting English vocabulary learning content with learners’ individual STM ability (verbal or visual) using mobile phones, and examine how the relationship affects English vocabulary learning. The learning materials were represented in four LCR types. Types A and B (basic information of the words and written annotation) were delivered by SMS, whereas types C and D were delivered by MMS (basic information of the words plus pictorial annotation and written annotation). The participants were given 50 minutes to learn 24 English words and took the English Vocabulary Recognition and Recall (EVRR) test to assess their English vocabulary learning performance. The results suggest that the learning content should be provided to
students according to their STM ability so that their learning can be facilitated rather than impeded.
More recently, mobile applications have caught some researchers’ attention.
Godwin-Jones (2010; 2011) investigated the current state of the newly emerging technology for language learning. With regard to vocabulary learning, he mentioned that the development of mobile software for vocabulary learning and flashcard editing is significant. The vocabulary learning programs he exemplified in the article, such as eStroke, Pleco and ChinesePod, have become more sophisticated and powerful. The mobile version of flashcard programs, like Anki and Quizlet, can offer essentially the same powerful functionality as the desktop version. Furthermore, according to Yang (2013), the development of mobile versions of applications on Apple or Android devices can increase the exposure of some software originally operated only by Windows or MAC. For example, Supermemo, one of the powerful spaced repetition software (SRS) for vocabulary learning in Godwin-Jones’ (2010) review, was once a Windows-only program. However, in Yang and Park’s (2012) review, it has been equipped with sound recognition system, and expanded its usability in multiple platforms including PC, smartphones, and e-learning via website. With the increasing distribution of smartphones, the convenience of wireless Internet connection, and the more integrated and diverse applications, smartphones may become more ideal devices for individualized informal vocabulary learning.
Furthermore, along with the exploration of the functions of and the applications for mobile devices, studies have also been conducted to investigate the effects of newly invented systems for mobile vocabulary learning. In addition to the aforementioned vocabulary learning system in Cavus and Ibrahim (2009), various innovative systems for vocabulary learning have also been developed and tested.
Stockwell (2007; 2010) tested the effectiveness of the prototype mobile-based intelligent vocabulary tutor system entitled Vocab Tutor. Both the PC and mobile versions of the system were the same in content, while the latter was simplified in the interface to fit the smaller screen. The students could choose either platform to complete the activities and tests. The mean scores of the same activities on the PC and mobile platforms were compared. Unlike Thornton and Houser (2005) found that using mobile phones in vocabulary learning was found to be a more effective way than using other media like the PC or paper materials, the results in Stockwell’s (2007;
2010) studies reveal that learners using the PC platform outperformed the learners using the mobile platform. Another unexpected outcome was that although most of the learners had positive view of mobile learning, not all of them were willing to engage in it. The obstacles to the use of mobile phones for learning might be caused by technological, psychological or environmental factors. The researcher concluded
that these outcomes might be a characteristic of the system itself, giving rise to a need to design an even more modified mobile interface that requires less effort for learners to use. In addition, even though learning via mobile devices provides an even greater sense of freedom of time and place, this freedom also makes it more difficult to decide which times and places are the most suitable for mobile learning. Therefore, in order to find the most appropriate way of mobile learning, both teachers and students have to experiment and make decisions together.
Chen and Chung (2008) also conducted a study to present a personalized mobile English vocabulary learning system based on Item Response Theory (IRT) and learning memory cycle and to assess the learning performance of the proposed learning system. The participants were Taiwanese university students who used PDAs to access the system which tailored English vocabulary learning materials to individual learners based on their vocabulary abilities and learning memory cycles.
The design of IRT in the system could evaluate learners’ vocabulary abilities, and then recommended proper learning materials for them. The learning memory cycle was a novel strategy used to adjust the review period for learning English vocabulary for individual learners based on their memory cycles for various words. With the system, learners were allowed to use the least time to achieve most efficient learning of vocabulary. After analyzing the results of the collected data and the questionnaires, the researchers concluded that the proposed learning system could significantly enhance learners’ English vocabulary abilities and promote learning interests, and it also facilitated a seamless ubiquitous learning environment for English learning without constraints of time or place by mobile devices.
Later, another study on testing personalized intelligent mobile learning system (PIMS) was administered by Chen and Hsu (2008). The study also aimed to assess the learning performance of the proposed personalized intelligent mobile learning system, which was based on Fuzzy Item Response Theory (FIRT). Just like in Chen and Chung (2008), the participants accessed the system on PDAs. With the design of FIRT, the system could appropriately recommend English news articles collected online for individual learners according to their reading abilities, and at the same time they could learn and review new or unfamiliar words that fitted their own vocabulary abilities.
The experimental results indicated that English news reading learning accompanied with unfamiliar or new vocabulary learning provides benefit to promote reading comprehension and learners’ reading abilities. Their reading abilities as well as vocabulary abilities were both enhanced. The researchers concluded that the proposed PIMS helped learners to conduct ubiquitous language learning at any time from any place by mobile devices and this mechanism was very convenient to utilize learner’s spare time for language learning because common advice from many English teachers
on the best way for learning English was “little and often” (Buda, 1984).
More recently, Huang et al. (2012) developed a ubiquitous English vocabulary learning (UEVL) system. The system helped students experience a systematic vocabulary learning process with the assistance of ubiquitous technology. The materials used were video clips. The technology acceptance model (TAM) and partial least squares approach are used to explore students’ perspectives on the UEVL system.
The results reveal that all the students’ perspectives on the UEVL system were positively and significantly influenced both the system characteristics and the material characteristics of the system. In other words, the UEVL system was readily accepted by the students in the sample. However, the active students were more interested in the perceived usefulness of the system, while the passive ones were more concerned about the perceived ease of use.
Viewing from a different perspective, some researchers (Kukulska-Hulme &
Shield, 2007) pointed out that the ways to study on MALL could be divided into two broad categories: content-based and design-oriented. Content-based studies are essentially to develop digital learning materials or content for mobile access and usually focus on more formal contexts, whereas design-oriented studies relate to issues of the informal nature of mobile learning, many of which conform to the communicative approach to language learning, focusing on out-of-class, authentic and/or social mobile learning activities.
To investigate undergraduate students’ dictionary and other uses of PDAs to enhance their incidental vocabulary learning, Song and Fox (2008) conducted a case study. Only three undergraduate students participated in the study, in which a multiple case study approach was adopted for a period of one year to gain a deeper understanding of the processes and outcomes of the PDA uses in incidental vocabulary learning by the students. With the collected data, the researchers adapted the Informal Mobile Learning Framework (Clough, Jones, McAndrew & Scanlon, 2008) and developed a diagram of PDA uses for incidental vocabulary learning, in which the PDA uses in the study were classified as Referential, Data collection, Situated, Constructive, Reflective, Explorative, and Conversing uses. The results indicate that PDAs can be used in more flexible, novel and extended ways for EFL vocabulary teaching and learning. It is students’ use of the technology that changes learning practices. Mobile technologies can thus be used in both formal and informal vocabulary learning.
Further, in Wong and Looi’s (2010; 2011) studies, the focus was on creating authentic and/or social mobile learning environments. Learner-centered content was emphasized, and MALL’s potential of transforming language learning into an authentic seamless learning experience was discussed. The researchers guided the
participants, two groups of Singaporean primary students, to use functions like the camera on the Smartphone to complete learning activities. The students were taught about target words or idioms first, and then they were asked to take pictures that demonstrated the meanings of the target words or idioms. They could do it anywhere and anytime outside of class or in their daily life, showing their creativity. Thus, the activities helped combine vocabulary learning and reviewing with authentic life. The researchers concluded that the seamless language learning process in this study fulfils Nation’s (2001) three-stage vocabulary learning (noticing, retrieving and generating) and turns the language subject into an authentic learning experience. They suggested that with appropriate design and implementation of seamless language learning, MALL has the potential of revolutionizing the language learning field and synergizing formal (in-class) and informal (out-of-class) language learning spaces.
From the studies reviewed above, MALL can be seem as a flexible and effective way for EFL vocabulary learning with different types of materials at any time and any place. The mobility and portability of the devices allow students utilize any small period of time, and thus formal and informal learning are combined to create ubiquitous seamless environments for vocabulary learning (Song and Fox, 2008; Stockwell, 2007; 2010; Wong & Looi, 2010; 2011). Mobile devices can also be an effective medium to present not only the text materials but also multimedia materials like animations and videos which can increase students’ interest and motivation (Chen et al., 2008; Lu, 2008; Thornton & Houser, 2005). With careful design and implementation and the help of personalized system, MALL can get students to be exposed more to the language and create ‘spacing effects’ that ‘push’
students to effectively learn and review English vocabulary (Cavus & Ibrahim, 2009;
Chen & Hsu, 2008; Lu, 2008). However, the limited screen size may influence the effectiveness of mobile learning, so the learning content representation types should be arranged to fit the mobile platform. Moreover, learners may need time to get ready and to find the appropriate time and environment for effective mobile learning (Stockwell, 2007; 20l0). Therefore, it may be important to investigate learners’
readiness for mobile learning.