5.3.1 Backgrounds and Metacognitive Listening Learning Strategy Awareness
With the tests of significance (test value = 3), the learners’ metacognitive listening strategy awareness in general and with respect to the five components was found to be at a medium level. The findings indicated that the learners’ metacognitive listening strategy awareness was satisfactory (Rahimi & Katal, 2012) and at a threshold level, which was essential for language learners to manage and regulate their own learning (Oxford, 2002). The results of the analysis between the demographic information and the learners’ metacognitive strategy awareness answered the first part of the fourth research question: Do the learners of different
backgrounds (current grade levels, gender, proficiency levels, and ownership
duration) have different levels of metacognitive listening learning strategy awareness? According to the results of a series of one-way ANOVA and the
independent sample t-test, the learners’ current grade levels, proficiency levels and their ownership duration had significant influences on their metacognitive listening strategy awareness, while the influence of gender was again found to be insignificant.To be more specific, the learners at different current grade levels seemed not to have differences in directed attention. However, the 9th graders were found to be better in problem-solving and planning/evaluation than the 7th graders, and they had better awareness of person knowledge than 8th graders did. On the contrary, 7th graders were found to be more aware of mental translation strategies than 9th graders.
Although the developmental differences concerning metacognitive awareness were found between age groups in previous studies, it was also suggested that learners’
metacognitive skills were developed significantly after the 3rd grade (Cross & Paris, 1988; Jacobs & Paris, 1987; Padeliadu, Botsas, & Sideridis, 2000; Schneider &
Pressley, 1997; van Kraayenoord & Schneider, 1999). Therefore, the learners’ age in the present study might not be the reason that caused the differences. The learners’ at higher grade levels might also have better language proficiency and more experiences in using metacognitive strategies, so it was not surprising that they were more aware of their use of metacognitive strategies.
Furthermore, the learners’ proficiency levels were found to have influences on their awareness of metacognitive listening strategies with respect to problem-solving, planning/evaluation, directed attention and mental translation. The use of metacognitive strategies is related to learners’ language proficiency (Oxford, 2002).
The higher proficiency levels might indicate that the learners were more-skilled listeners and that they had more use of metacognitive strategies, which was an important difference between more-skilled listeners and less-skilled ones. (O’Malley
& Chamot, 1990; Vandergrift, 2003). Therefore, the learners at higher proficiency levels might be more willing to use metacognitive listening strategies and thus developed better awareness of their listening strategy use, while students with low listening proficiency were less motivated and lacked use of listening strategies (Vandergrift, 2005). Moreover, according to Rahimi and Katal (2012), students with higher levels of metacognitive awareness might spend more time on listening to audio input and were more able to deal with listening tasks and resources effectively. Hence, the learners who had passed the elementary level or higher of GEPT were found to be more aware of their metacognitive listening strategy use than the learners who had not pass any level of the test. However, there seemed not to be significant differences in person knowledge among the learners at different proficiency levels.
Furthermore, the learners who had been owning and using smartphones for
more than one year were found to be more aware of their metacognitive listening strategy use. In the present study, the learners owning and using smartphones for more than one year surpassed the other learners in all the five components except for person knowledge. Those who had been using smartphones less than six months fell behind the other two groups of learners. According to Tsai and Tsai (2003), the increase of experience in learning with technologies would enhance learners’ self-efficacy, which was essential in and interrelated to their use of metacognitive listening strategies to control and regulate learning process (Oxford, 2002; Vandergrift, 2005). In other words, the learners owning and using smartphones for more than one year might have more chances to download and listen to audio files and worked more frequently with listening learning materials than the other learners. With the accumulation of experience in using smartphones to learn English listening, learners’ metacognitive skills and strategies might be facilitated. Meanwhile, they might also perceive that they could successfully complete listening learning tasks with more metacognitive strategies, and their awareness of metacognitive strategy use might thus be augmented.
5.3.2 Backgrounds and Mobile Listening Learning Readiness
With the tests of significance (test value = 3), the learners’ readiness towards mobile listening learning in general and with respect to the three aspects was found to be at a medium level. The results of the one-way ANOVA and the independent sample
t-test answered the second part of the fourth research question: Do the learners of different backgrounds have different levels of readiness towards mobile listening learning? While the influence of the learners’ gender on their readiness towards
mobile listening learning seemed to be insignificant, the learners’ current grade levels, proficiency levels and ownership duration were again found to be influential variables for their readiness. Although the differences between the learners’ readiness in regard to Familiarity and Attitude were not significant, the results again indicated that the learners in 9th grade might have more experiences in mobile listening learning than the 7th graders. It was not surprising that the 9th graders might spend more time on their smartphones to learn English listening.Furthermore, learners’ proficiency levels were also found to have significant effects on their readiness towards mobile listening learning. As mentioned above, more skilled listeners used more metacognitive strategies (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990;
Vandergrift, 2003). Shirani and Yamat (2011) also found a positive relationship between learners’ proficiency levels and their listening strategy use, including metacognitive strategies. With the development of such ability to orchestrate
metacognitive strategies, learners may know better ways to practice and reinforce what they have learned (Chari, Samavi, & Kordestani, 2010), and they tend to use more technology applications that are related to listening. Therefore, learners at a higher proficiency level might have not only higher awareness but also better readiness towards mobile learning.
A positive and significant relationship was found between learners’ use hours of mobile technologies and their perceived mobile learning readiness (Rahimi & Katal, 2012). Just like the reason that the 9th graders had more experiences in learning with smartphones, the learners who had been owning and using smartphones for a longer period would have more experiences in and access to the devices and applications, which might increase learners’ general technological knowledge and technical competence (Bozionelos, 2001).