Chapter 4 Results
4.4 MANOVA Analysis and ANOVA Analysis
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was used to compare simultaneously the five characteristics of global managers with majors/programs, GMBA/IMBA, MBA, other business majors, in business graduate schools. Table 9 lists means and standard deviations for the five characteristics of global managers compared with three majors. The means of GMBA and MBA in average were no significant difference, but the means of other business major were particularly lower than others.
Table 9 Means and Standard Deviations (SD) of three majors
GMBA/IMBA N=74
MBA N=81
Other Business Major N=67
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Global Business Acumen* 21.45 4.20 21.17 2.98 16.25 5.30 Leadership Characteristics* 30.36 5.26 31.78 3.60 24.45 9.39
World View* 15.58 2.62 15.91 2.07 11.43 4.61
Personal Leadership* 19.11 3.32 20.07 2.51 14.42 5.63 Business Leadership* 27.11 4.26 27.99 3.63 19.88 9.21
*. Global Business Acumen includes 6 elements. Leadership Characteristics includes 8 elements. World View includes 4 elements. Personal Leadership includes 5 elements. Business Leadership includes 7 elements.
Table 9 Means and Standard Deviations (SD) of three majors
The result of multivariate test significance showed that the relationship between majors/programs and five characteristics of global managers approached significance (F-Value=12.336, p<.01), which showed that the different majors or programs would make respondents the difference with the characteristics which the global managers should have. In Table 10, it showed that all the five characteristics had significantly difference from different majors/ programs. Global business acumen was significantly associated with different
majors/programs (F-Value= 34.019, p< .01). Leadership characteristics was significantly associated with different majors/programs (F-Value= 26.528, p< .01). World view had the significant relationship with different majors/programs (F-Value= 42.756, p=<.01). Personal leadership was significantly related with different majors/programs (F-Value= 41.785, P< .01).
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Business leadership was also significantly related with different majors/programs (F-Value=
38.374, P<.01).
Table 10 Test of between-subject effects
Source Dependent Variable
Type III Sum of Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Major/
Program
Business Acumen 1195.634 2 597.817 34.019 <.001 Leadership Characteristics 2149.298 2 1074.649 26.528 <.001 World View 878.099 2 439.049 42.756 <.001 Personal Leadership 1298.560 2 649.280 41.785 <.001 Business Leadership 2794.206 2 1397.103 38.374 <.001
Error
Business Acumen 3848.551 219 17.573 Leadership Characteristics 8871.716 219 40.510
WorldView 2248.856 219 10.269
Personal Leadership 3402.989 219 15.539 Business Leadership 7973.168 219 36.407 Table 10 Test of between-subject effects
In order to determine which majors/programs were reporting statistically significant differences, a post-hoc analysis was conducted. A Tukey‟s HSD (Honestly Significant
Difference) test was used. This test is used for testing the significance of unplanned pair-wise comparisons of means with the results in Table 11. With the summarized results, it indicated that other business majors were significant lower sub-scores than the other two majors in all five sub-scales. Comparing with the significance, GMBA/IMBA had no significantly difference relationship with MBA. However, other business majors had not only significant relationship but also negative mean difference from five characteristics with other two.
Besides, the difference was significant larger than the other two. For example, GMBA/IMBA had mean difference of -.88 on business leadership with MBA without significance (p=.64).
However, GMBA/IMBA had mean difference of 7.22 on business leadership with other business majors significantly at the .05 level. On the characteristic of global business acumen,
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other business majors had significant (p<.05) mean difference of -5.19 with GMBA/IMBA and of -4.91 with MBA; this difference supported Hypothesis 1, MBA students have more global business acumen than non-MBA students. On the characteristic of leadership
characteristics, other business majors had significant (p<.05) mean difference of -5.91 with GMBA/IMBA and of -7.33 with MBA; this difference supported Hypothesis 2, MBA
students have more leadership characteristics than non-MBA students. On the characteristic of world view, other business majors had significant (p<.05) mean difference of -4.14 with GMBA/IMBA and of -4.48 with MBA; it supported Hypothesis 3-1, MBA students have more world view than non-MBA students. On the characteristic of personal leadership, other business majors had significant (p<.05) mean difference of -4.69 with GMBA/IMBA and of -5.65 with MBA; it supported Hypothesis 4, MBA students have more personal leadership skills than non-MBA students. On the characteristic of business leadership, other business majors had significant (p<.05) mean difference of -7.22 with GMBA/IMBA and of -8.10 with MBA; the difference supported Hypothesis 5, MBA students have more business leadership skills than non-MBA students. To test Hypothesis 3-2, GMBA/IMBA students have more cross-cultural adjustment than non-GMBA students, more comparison have to be done. In Table 10, GMBA/IMBA had significantly (p<.05) mean difference with non-MBA on the characteristic of world view, which includes the variable of cross-culture flexibility. However, GMBA/IMBA had no significant (p=.795) difference with MBA on this part, and the mean was even negative as -.33.
Table 11 Post-hoc test by Tukey's HSD test
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*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
**. 1= GMBA/IMBA, 2= MBA, 3= Other business major.
***. BA= Global business acumen, LC= Leadership characteristics, WV= World view, PL= Personal leadership, BL= Business leadership.
Table 11 Post-hoc test by Tukey's HSD test
In Table 12, it was separated into two parts. In the first part, means of GMBA/IMBA were
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obviously higher than other two kinds of majors. However, in the second part, means of MBA were slightly higher than other two kinds of majors. The MANOVA was used and the
multivariate test performed the result that the majors or programs were related with four variables, cultural flexibility, experiencing in other countries or culture, doing project with international students, and joining activities with international classmates, with the
significance (F-Value=17.238, P<.01).
Table 12 Mean, Standard Deviation (SD) for three majors
GMBA MBA Other Business Major
N=74 N=81 N=67
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Q9 How many courses do you usually have to do a project with students/people from different countries in your program/department per semester? *
2.65 0.58 1.72 0.90 1.79 0.98
Q10 How many times do you usually join activities with international classmates/students per month? **
2.30 0.81 1.72 0.90 1.61 0.74
3-2 I become easier to adapt diverse cultures. 4.07 0.78 4.22 0.55 2.96 1.35
3-3 My program encourages me to experiment with different customs.
3.99 0.84 4.02 0.82 2.96 1.40
*. The options of the first question: 1=0-1, 2=2-3, 3=more than 3
**. The options of the second question: 1=0, 2=1-2, 3=more than 3 Table 12 Mean, Standard Deviation (SD) for three majors
In Table 13, it showed that majors/programs had significant difference with cultural flexibility (F=39.01, P<.01). Majors/programs had significant relationship with experiencing different countries/culture (F=24.23, P<.01). Majors/programs were associated with doing projects with international students with significant difference (F=28.77, P<.01). Majors/programs were associated with joining activities with international classmates with significant difference (F=14.72, P<.01).
Table 13 Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
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Source
Dependent Variable
Type III Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Major/Program 3-2 67.52 2 33.76 39.01 <.01
3-3 51.75 2 25.87 24.23 <.01
Q9 40.04 2 20.02 28.77 <.01
Q10 19.87 2 9.93 14.72 <.01
Error 3-2 189.52 219 .86
3-3 233.80 219 1.06
Q9 152.40 219 .69
Q10 147.83 219 .67
Table 13 Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
In Table 14, it was found that GMBA/IMBA had significant (P<.05) mean higher for four variables than other business majors. However, GMBA/IMBA had significant (P<.05) mean higher than MBA only for Q9, doing projects with international students, and Q10, joining activities with international classmates. About the cultural flexibility and experiencing foreign countries/culture, GMBA/IMBA had negative mean difference with MBA, which surprisingly had no significance. Though other business majors had almost significantly (P<.05) negative mean differences with other two kinds of majors, other business majors had one positive mean difference (.07) higher than MBA without significance. To sum up, most of results supported Hypothesis 3-2: GMBA/IMBA students have more cross-cultural adjustment than non-GMBA students.
In conclusion, six hypotheses were supported after statistical analysis.
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Table 14 Post-hoc test by Tukey's HSD test
(I) Your program/major
(J) Your
program/major ***
(I-J)
Mean Diff. Std. Error Sig.
1** 2** 3-2 -0.15 0.15 0.56
3** 1.11* 0.16 <.05 3-3 -0.04 0.17 0.97 1.03* 0.17 <.05 Q9 .93* 0.13 <.05 .86* 0.14 <.05 Q10 .58* 0.13 <.05 .69* 0.14 <.05
2 1 3-2 0.15 0.15 0.56
3 1.27* 0.15 <.05
3-3 0.04 0.17 0.97 1.07* 0.17 <.05 Q9 -.93* 0.13 <.05 -0.07 0.14 0.85 Q10 -.58* 0.13 <.05 0.10 0.14 0.72
3 1 3-2 -1.11* 0.16 <.05
2 -1.27* 0.15 <.05
3-3 -1.03* 0.17 <.05 -1.07* 0.17 <.05 Q9 -.86* 0.14 <.05 0.07 0.14 0.85 Q10 -.69* 0.14 <.05 -0.10 0.14 0.72
*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
**. 1= GMBA/IMBA, 2= MBA, 3= Other business major.
Table 14 Post-hoc test by Tukey's HSD test
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According to EFA and CFA result, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted for insurance of the significant difference among three majors/programs. In Table 15, it was obviously that the mean of other business major was lower than the others. Because the Test of Homogeneity of Variances was significant (P<.05), this would mean that it was not similar variances. However, the Welch and Brown-Forsythe statistics can still be used as the result in Table 16. The significance value is less than 0.05 and there were statistically significant differences between three majors/programs. The post-hoc test was conducted by Tukey‟s HSD test. As the result in Table 17, other business major was significantly lower than the others.
However, GMBA and MBA had no significant differences between each other.
Table 15 Mean and Standard Deviation of three majors/programs
N Mean* SD
Major/Programs
GMBA/IMBA 74 113.61 16.38
MBA 81 116.93 12.34
Other Business Major 67 86.43 32.68
Total 222 106.62 25.33
*The variable is conducted by the sum of thirty variables.
Table 16 Robust Tests of Equality of Means
Statistica df1 df2 Sig.
Welch 25.95 2 125.02 <.01
Brown-Forsythe 38.70 2 116.14 <.01
a. Asymptotically F distributed.
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Table 17 Post-hoc test by Tukey's HSD test
(I) Your
program/major**
(J) Your
program/major Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.
1 2 -3.31 3.47 .61
3 27.17* 3.64 .00
2 1 3.31 3.47 .61
3 30.49* 3.56 .00
3 1 -27.17* 3.64 .00
2 -30.49* 3.56 .00
*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
**. 1= GMBA/IMBA, 2= MBA, 3= Other business major.
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