Chapter III Methodology…
3.3 Participants Sampling Procedure
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3.3 Participants Sampling Procedure
The purposive form of non-probability sampling is chosen to achieve a specific objective to make certain that among the cultural differences there are sufficient numbers of elements were interviewed. Thus the total number of the non-probability public sample consisted of 20 respondents, including 10 Westerners (Americans and Europeans) and 10 Taiwanese of both sexes, and of different ages, and educational backgrounds. According to the age and education background, each respondents’
personal data, which could have an impact on the study results caused by personal experience, involvement and cultural environment, have been noted (refer to Appendix 2). The only other manipulation that has been made is that all respondents were able to speak, listen and read in the English language.
A total of 20 NCCU graduate students and working stuff participated in the interview procedure. Each respondent was granted with 100NTD pay.
Table 3-1: Public Sample
Gender Taiwanese National Foreign National Total
%
Men 25 25 50
Women 25 25 50
Total % 50 50 100
3.4 PETA Print Advertisements Sampling
In the past 20 years (1991-2010), PETA has launched 128 print advertisements presented by a female spokesperson speaking out for animals used in the fashion and clothing industry (the biggest part of fair clothing print ads, the total amount of which includes 169 prints presented by both sexes). For the past 4 years (2007-2010), PETA
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has increased the efforts in fighting the cruel fashion industry by using its own weapon – celebrity female models. Thus, for the years of 2007-2010, the research observes the widest use of celebrity endorsement and sexual appeal in 109 print advertisements printed during that time period, which is a large fraction of the total amount of 128, those were included in the analysis.
Author’s choice of the Skins case study investigation is caused by following reasons. “Skins” involve greater number celebrity endorsements rather than other PETA’s campaign (vegetarianism, animals in entertainment, animals companion). In addition, the author finds it a very effective way to advertise while using celebrities who are actually fashion workers to stand up against cruel fashion.
109 print ads were categorized in 4 sets according to the advertised topic (refer to Appendix 3), coded and analyzed (refer Appendix 4) in order to achieve a match for the representative sample.
3.4.1 Coding Scheme
The coding scheme is developed by the identification of the categories of each set, enumerating the specific dimensions of each category, and measuring each category at the nominal level, and then counting the number of occurrences falling into each dimension.
All of the total 109 print ads have been presented by celebrity spokeswomen. The identification of specific dimensions represents a type of characteristic, the amount of characteristic, or the presence or absence of characteristics.
The classification system includes 9 categories partially developed by author according to the presented print PSA content and based on previous research tradition.
The procedure was applied to 4 sets of PETA print ads:
Top Popularity of Celebrity Endorser – this category is meant to define whether the spokeswoman celebrity is popular all over the world, or only has celebrity status in her locality. The category is based on the rating data of independent chart, celebchart.com, which provides the scale of popularity for each celebrity (“who?” (unknown), “average”
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and “star” (top popularity). The author has modified the category of top popularity to the present or absent dimension.
Use of Sexual Appeal – this category is meant to define the nature of the sexual appeal in each ad. Sexual appeal is rated from “explicit” to “latent”. The “explicit” dimension is based on previous research presented in order of typology in Reichert (2003), “What is Sex in Advertising?". The author uses “latent” dimension in order to investigate opposite meaning of the presented category.
Use of Fear Appeal – this category is meant to define the content of fear appeal. A
“minor” dimension (or “minimal fear appeal” from Janis and Feshbach, 1953; Miller, 1963) means an appearance of only non-dominant verbal and visual elements, such as spoken elements of the message that elicit suitably terrifying emotion produced by a spokesperson, or a non-obvious occurrence of blood spots in the print image. The
“unpleasant” dimension of fear appeal (Boster and Mongeau, 1984) signifies a presence of visibly terrifying elements such as a pool of blood (whether around a model or animal), a representation of a death of a human, or the representation of an animal being skinned alive. The “brutal” dimension of fear appeal (“strong fear appeal” from Janis and Feshbach, 1953; Miller, 1963) signifies the use of overly bloody images with both humans and animals covered in blood, and strongly disgusting image elements of dead animal being skinned alive.
Use of Humor Appeal – this category is meant to define the content of humor appeal.
Appeal is rated from “amusing” (Sternthal and Craig, 1973) to “latent” (used by author as an opposite meaning of the presented category).
Message characteristic – this category is meant to define the message characteristics of an ad with both fear and humor appeal by characterizing it as either “educative” (or
“informative” from Ogilvy, 1983) or “amusing” (Sternthal and Craig, 1973). An
“educative” dimension in this category means such facts as the numbers of killed animals, killing methods, the amount of pain the animal senses etc. are presented. An
“amusing” dimension in this category means a joke, or some phrase that has a sense of humor is presented.
Dominant Tone of Non-verbal Communication – this category defines the types of
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different gestures and poses taken by a spokeswomen. The “enticing” (Reichert, 2003) gestures, poses could be defined by arousal or the suggestion of initiating sexual contact.
The “ultimative” gestures, poses taken by a spokesperson present her strong disagreement and show the public her ability to prove her point of view. The author applied dimension of ultimative tone of non-verbal communication by the reason of the PSA content specificity. The “warmth” gestures, poses suggest the dimension of warmth (Aaker and Bruzzone, 1981; Edell and Burke, 1987; Wells, Leavitt and McConville, 1971) by presenting friendliness and caring (such as smiling, hugging an animal or a toy, etc.).
Type of dress – this category defines whether the spokeswoman is not dressed (“nudity”) is wearing revealing clothing designed to increase sexual appeal (“revealing”), or is Bruzzone, 1981; Edell and Burke, 1987; Wells, Leavitt and McConville, 1971) such as cute animals, or fluffy toys etc. or “unpleasant” (Boster and Mongeau, 1984) such as skinned animals, or hung toys, etc.
Spokesperson Skin highlight – this category is meant to define the creative match of the chosen spokesperson’s skin highlights and the advertised topic. Highlights such as a black spokeswoman who suggests staying comfortable in her own skin, a tattooed model who speak out for using “ink” instead of “mink” on their bodies, and a model who takes action “being inside” an exotic animal skin, which makes her one of them, are marked as “exoticism”. Those spokeswomen, bare or dressed, that do not exhibit anything out of the ordinary were marked as “ordinariness”. The category is developed by author in order to improve the meaning of existing “physical attractiveness”
classification (Buss, 1994) by incorporating skin highlights, which is playing an important role among the Skins PSA campaign.
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Set A: I’d Rather Go Naked (52 Print Ads were analyzed)
In the present set of print advertisements the dominant appeal is sexual appeal.
Thus humor appeal does not take a place in this set. All models in this set are completely naked so the “nudity” type of dress is the default type. The category of
“Types of Objects and Accessories in Use” is inappropriate.
Category: Dimension:
Set B: Don’t Wear Fur (33 Print Ads were analyzed)
In the present set of categories no skin highlights were mentioned, thus the category of SpokespersonSkin Highlight was excluded.
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Use of Sexual Appeal Explicit Latent
Use of Fear Appeal Minor Unpleasant Brutal
Use of Humour Appeal Amusing Latent
Tone of Non-verbal Communication Enticing Ultimative Warmth
Type of Objects and Accessories in Use Pleasant Unpleasant
Type of Dress Nudity Revealing Common
Set C: Skins (9 Print Ads were analyzed)
Top Popularity of Celebrity Endorser Present Absent
SpokespersonSkin Highlight Exoticism Ordinariness
Message Characteristics Educative
Amusing
Use of Sexual Appeal Explicit Latent
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Tone of Non-verbal Communication Enticing Ultimative
Set D: Stop the Seal Hunt (15 Print Ads were analyzed)
Category: Dimension:
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Message Characteristics Educative
Amusing
Type of Dress Nudity Revealing Common
SpokespersonSkin Highlight Exoticism Ordinariness
Type of objects and Accessories in use Pleasant Unpleasant
For the detailed coding scheme, please refer to Appendix 3 and Appendix 4.
3.4.2 Coding Reliability
A code sheet was designed in order to examine and evaluate each advertisement, and record two coders’ observations. Reliability in coding is evidenced by two coders independently assigning the same code to the same stimulus. Intercoder reliability for nominal data is calculated according to Holsti’s method to reflect the percentage of agreement.
3.4.3 Representative Sample
After the measuring of each category at the categorical scale was completed, the representative sample of 9 PETA’s Print Ads was marked out. In order to achieve the appropriate data collection from the public responses to PETA samples, further manipulation by combining prints into 2 sets of “Positive” sponsors (soft selling ads using humor and sex appeal) and “Negative” sponsors (hard selling ads using fear and sex appeal) was conducted.
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recordings of the interviews are examined, as well as any notes that have been taken to record physical behavior.4.1 Data Review and Observations
Before generating the categories, themes and patterns in analysist-constructed typologies, the review of observations was managed in the following manner partially taken from Marshall and Rossman’s model of qualitative data review (1990).
(I) Verbal
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In order to better understand the level of personal involvement and experience of respondents that can have an impact on the study results, the notes of sample age and education background have been taken (refer to Appendix 2)
4.2 Reliability and Validity of Audience Response
At the end of the interview procedure measurement of attitude toward PETA’s advertisements requires asking a set of several similar questions using scales that is considered reliable if there is internal consistency in response. These scales would be internally consistent, and thus reliable, if individuals with positive attitudes tend to answer all questions positively while those with negative attitudes tend to answer all
Same procedure has been applied to measure reliability of the audience responses
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toward the message characteristics, humor and fear appeal.
The scaled test also performs as a concurrent validity estimated by comparing results obtained from the recorded data of interview and shorter measurement taken at the same point in time for the same construct. Consequently, shorter test consisting of only few questions has concurrent validity when its scores highly correlate with the data of existing interview.
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4.3 Data Management: Generating Categories, Themes and Patterns
The observations of verbal and nonverbal communication have resulted in the following scheme of distinct categories, given as regularity and prevalence noted in the observation of each print advertisement response.
The participants’ responses were analyzed in order to distinguish favorable or unfavorable attitude and the presence or absence of responsible thinking. Under the responsible thinking the author means taking or considering taking some very important action and expression of responsibility toward the advertising subject.
(I) Set of Positive Sponsors: Humor and Sexual Appeal
1. Holly Madison: “I Always Fake It! I’d Never Wear Real Fur”;
The current advertisement has been coded as top popularity of celebrity endorser;
explicit sexual appeal with the use of amusement in humor appeal and amusing message characteristics; interpreted a as enticing type of nonverbal communication through the use of pleasant accessories and no dress worn.
Figure 4-1: Analysis of Regularities and Prevalence Categories of audience response toward the advertisement by Holly Madison
Developing the theme in patterns: Regardless of the message clarity, the main attention grabber is spokesperson nudity, which has results in shameful feelings and a weak, non-trusted message, together with an absence of any responsible thinking or attitude
Distracting Body Image:
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2. Pamela Andersen: “Save the Seals! Stop Canadian Slaughter”;
The current advertisement has been coded as top popularity of celebrity endorser;
explicit sexual appeal with the use of amusement in humor appeal and amusing message characteristics; enticing type of nonverbal communication using revealing dress with a pleasant object on it.
Figure 4-2: Analysis of Regularities and Prevalence Categories of audience response toward the advertisement by Pamela Andersen
Developing the theme in patterns: The use of a message source with a negative background strongly influenced the message characteristics, which has resulted in an absence of responsible thinking. Separately from the spokesperson image, however, the match of logo and slogan has resulted in responsible attitude.
Unfavorable Message Source
-Playful image of Playboy
Spoken Message flaw:
-Visibility of call-to-action appeal -Reduce of distracting over-sexual
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3. Imogen Bailey: “Stop Wearing Bear Skin and I’ll Drop the Sign” – “Bare Skin – Not Bear Skin”;
The current advertisement has been coded with the absence of top popularity of celebrity endorser; explicit sexual appeal with the use of amusement; humor appeal and amusing message characteristics; a enticing type of nonverbal communication” through the use of no dress worn while in interaction with an unpleasant supplemental object.
Figure 4-3: Analysis of Regularities and Prevalence Categories of audience response toward the advertisement by Imogen Bailey
Developing the theme in patterns: The perfect match of the image and meaning through the dialogue form has produced a persuasive message through interaction with the receiver and an attention-grabbing image, which resulted in positive and responsible attitudes toward the ad.
Persuasion through the Dialogue:
-Interaction of “enemy” and “defender”
-Image-Message connectivity
Favorable Message Characteristics:
-Short and Clear -Catchy
-Funny
-Call-to-action
Favorable Image characteristic:
-Attention Punch
-Shown message receiver
Presence of
Responsible Attitude:
-Expressed Interest
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4. Jamelia: “Be Comfortable in Your Skin and Let Animals Keep Theirs”;
The current advertisement has been coded with the absence of top popularity of celebrity endorser; exoticism and explicit sexual appeal with the use of latent humor appeal and educative message characteristics; enticing type of nonverbal communication with no dress worn and interaction with a pleasant supplemental object.
Figure 4-4: Analysis of Regularities and Prevalence Categories of audience response toward the advertisement by Jamelia
Developing the theme in patterns: The exoticism and naturalness within the spokesperson and animal interaction produced a responsible attitude of possibility for peaceful coexistence in the human-nature relationship.
Favorable body image:
-Exoticism, no distraction -Naturalness, no vulgarity
Human – Animal favorable interaction:
-Naturalness
-Peacefulness between “black” and
“white”
-Cuteness
Image – Message Connectivity:
-Laconism and clarity
-Catchy call-to-action spoken out by black spokesperson
Presence of Responsible Attitude and reflecting -on possibility of peaceful coexistence
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(II) Set of Negative sponsor: Fear And Sexual Appeal
5. Christian Serratos: “I’d Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur”
The current advertisement has been coded as present top popularity of celebrity endorser; explicit sexual appeal with the use of minor fear appeal and educative message characteristics; and interpreted as a enticing type of nonverbal communication with no dress worn.
Figure 4-5: Analysis of Regularities and Prevalence Categories of audience response toward the advertisement by Christian Serratos
Developing the theme in patterns: Confusion within Image and Message connection has resulted in the absence of trust and any responsible attitude.
Favorable Spokesperson Image:
-Beauty
Total disconnect between Image, slogan and message appeal:
-Confusion in setting
Absence of Responsible Attitude:
-Not trustworthy
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6. Natalie Imbruglia: “Try Telling Him, It’s Just a Little Fur Trim”
The current advertisement has been coded as present top popularity of celebrity endorser; latent sexual appeal with no dress worn; the use of minor fear appeal and educative message characteristics; and interpreted as warmth type of nonverbal communication in interaction with a pleasant object.
Figure 4-6: Analysis of Regularities and Prevalence Categories of audience response toward the advertisement by Natalie Imbruglia
Developing the theme in patterns: Combination of positive celebrity background and trustworthy persuasive message characteristics with favorable spokesperson image and
Favorable Message Source
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human-animal interaction produces strongly favorable evaluation and responsible attitude.
7. Lisa B: “Wearing Exotic Skins – Kills. Leave Wildlife Out Of Your Wardrobe”;
The current advertisement has been coded with the absence of top popularity of celebrity endorser; exoticism and latent sexual appeal with the use of unpleasant fear appeal and educative message characteristics; and interpreted as an ultimative type of nonverbal communication using an unpleasant object and a revealing outfit.
Figure 4-7: Analysis of Regularities and Prevalence Categories of audience response toward the advertisement by Lisa B
Developing the theme in patterns: Favorable characteristics of Image and its
connectivity to Message have resulted in presence of responsible attitude and influenced responsible thinking.
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8. Shriley Manson: “Here Is the Rest of Your Coat”;
The current advertisement has been coded as the presence of top popularity of celebrity endorser; latent sexual appeal with the use of unpleasant fear appeal and educative message characteristics; an ultimative type of nonverbal communication using an unpleasant object and a common outfit.
Figure 4-8: Analysis of Regularities and Prevalence Categories of audience response toward the advertisement by Shirley Manson
Developing the theme in patterns: The avorably perceived strongly unpleasant image characteristics combined with the effective message has resulted in the presence of strong responsible attitudes; unfavorably perceived strongly unpleasant images do not allow the viewer to concentrate on message appeal and do not produce responsible
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9. ChristineDolce, aka ForBiddeN: “Fur On Your Collar is Blood On Your Hands”;
This has been coded with the absence of top popularity of celebrity endorser;
explicit sexual appeal with the use of brutal fear appeal and educative message characteristics; an ultimative type of Nonverbal Communication using an unpleasant object and a revealing outfit.
Figure 4-9: Analysis of Regularities and Prevalence Categories of audience response toward the advertisement by Christine Dolce
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Developing the theme in patterns: The unfavorable attitudes towards the artificial image may produce an unfavorable, non-trustworthy attitude toward the message, which may result in the absence of responsible thinking. Perceived as too unpleasant or disgusting, this image does not allow the viewer to concentrate on message appeal, or fails to produce a responsible attitude.
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Reporting the results in summaries reflects the intensity of dominant underlying attitudes of the study participants and the percentage of its support.
(I) Set of Positive sponsor: Humor And Sexual Appeal Holly Madison: “I Always Fake It! I’d Never Wear Real Fur”
Table 4-1: The intensity of dominant attitudes of audience response toward PETA advertisement by Holly Madison
Participants
Summary: Distracting nude image with combination with amusing message is not trustworthy and fails to produce a responsible attitude
No significant difference in the distraction element was found between foreigners or Taiwanese of either genders.
Pamela Andersen: “Save the Seals! Stop Canadian Slaughter”
Table 4-2: The intensity of dominant attitudes of audience response toward PETA
Table 4-2: The intensity of dominant attitudes of audience response toward PETA