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In addition, gender inequality in education and health can also be explained to a considerable extent by religious preference, regional factors, and civil freedom. These systematic patterns in gender differentials suggest that low investment in women is not an efficient economic choice, and we can show that gender inequality in education is bad for economic growth.44 Thus, societies that have a preference for not investing in girls, they pay a price for it in terms of slower growth and reduced income, but MENA countries pay a price in order to keep power within the elites rather than transferring oil money into households.45 Therefore, Dollar and Gatti suggest that economic development is highly correlated with gender equality; however, stereotypes are a threat in terms that parents are expecting direct benefits in investing into boys´ education rather than girls.46 On the same note, economic development (capita income), there are other functions affecting gender equality such a civil liberties, religious preferences, and economic policies implemented by governments.47
1.4.2 Religion and Gender Inequality
On the other hand as our study focus on the majority Muslim countries, the objectivity lies on the necessity of the evaluation and identification of how significant is the influence of world religions on gender inequality, and the social status of women come as the vital part of this thesis. Many scholars argue that status of women in society is an outcome of the
44 David Dollar and Roberta Gatti, “Gender Inequality, Income, and Growth: Are Good Times Good for Women?,” World Bank, (May 1999), Available at: http://darp.lse.ac.uk/frankweb/courses/EC501/DG.pdf
45 Ibid.
46 Ibid.
47 Ibid.
Esther Duflo, “Gender Equality and Economic Development,“ (Bocconi Lecture: 2010), Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dIB8DlmaKh8
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interpretation of religious texts penetrating deeply into society even nowadays, and of the cultural and institutional settings of religious communities.48
Gender inequality as the form of social inequality between genders is visible not only in Muslim majority countries, but no different extent in whole world. According to Inglehart and Norris, these differences are primarily due to cultural legacies, historical development, geographic location, and, last but not least, the religious norms which are predominate in the society.49 Therefore, in the second part of this thesis, it will be important to keep in mind that these forces influencing women´s status in order to choose two Muslim majority countries with respect of the different cultures, historical development, and geographical location.
However, both disposing with significant amount of oil for observation of different effects on gender inequality indexes will be important to preserve.
Religious beliefs are deeply rooted in peoples’ experiences, directly influencing the socio-economic and political direction of societies.50 In this sense, the importance also lies on the distinguishing of different political system, which might potentially lead to greater gender inequality or equality. All world religions today maintain male social dominance within societal structures, but empirical research on developments in the individual religions, especially in the case of Islam; indicate a negative shift in society towards a decreased status of women.51
In most of the cultures and religions, conservative traditions prevailing regarding faith, prevailing multiple centuries are applied more strictly to women rather than men, especially
48 Kamila Klingorova and Tomáš Havlicek, “Religion and gender inequality: The status of women in the societies of world religions,” Moravian Geographical Reports 2/2015, Vol. 23 (Prague: February, 2015), p.3-5
49 Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris, “Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Cultural Change Around the World,”
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003)
50David P. Stump, “Book Review: Evolution and Religious Creation Myths: How Scientists Respond,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology, (December 29, 2009)
Kamila Klingorova, Tomáš Havlicek, “Religion and gender inequality: The status of women in the societies of world religions”
51 Jean Holm, “Women in Religion,” (Bloomsbury Academic – 1994)
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coming to places of worship or other places of religious importance, allowing and supporting women segregation in mosques, or even some temples and places of worship are restricting women to enter holy places.52 These facts possibly having negative consequences even outside of places with religious importance, spreading religious beliefs into everyday interactions, impacting women´s status in the society. “Religious people are more intolerant and have more conservative views of the role of women in society.”53 Therefore, according to conservative traditions based on religiosity, religion is the tallest barrier for women to climb over in order to achieve equal opportunities and reduce current gender gap, as some components of Islam being gender discriminatory.54
Speaking about status of women in Muslim countries, “Majority of men in Middle East believe a woman's place is in the home.”55 This old conservative views in the MENA countries, according co-author of the study and president of equality campaign Promundo, Gary Barker, “There is a long way to go for men to fully accept and support equality for women in the Arab region, as in many parts of the world,” viewing gender inequality in the region of Middle East and North Africa as a mixture of long traditions and possible fault of undermining women opportunities. 56
“Across all four countries used in Promundo´s sample (Egypt, Morocco, Lebanon, Palestine), it is observable that one of the best way to reduce gender inequality is when men involve themselves into more of the activities in the home previously perceive as women’s
52 Ankita Singh, “Why Religion Is The Hardest Barrier Women Must Overcome For Gender Equality,” Elite Daily, (March 9, 2016), Available at: http://elitedaily.com/women/religion-women-barrier-equality/1412604/
53 Luigi Guisoa, Paola Sapienzad, Luigi Zingales, “People’s opium? Religion and economic attitudes,” Journal of Monetary Economics 50, (September 6th, 2002)
54 Ibid.
55 Kate Lyons, “Majority of men in Middle East survey believe a woman's place is in the home,” The Guardian (May 2, 2017), Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/may/02/majority-of-men-in-middle-east-north-africa-survey-believe-a-womans-place-is-in-the-home
56 Ibid.
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roles.”57 Disrupting this old conservative tradition or religious beliefs, nowadays can equalize gender gap. In the most of Middle Eastern and North African families, men are the one who are bringing financial resources into household, paralyzing participation of the women in social and public life outside of household.58 Therefore author beliefs that increasing women´s labor participation can also increase gender equality across the whole MENA region and other Muslim majority countries.
Based on the quantitative research of doctors Hlavicek and Klingorova, by comparison of status of the women in the societies of world religions, they asserted that there is the highest level of gender equality in states without a dominant religious affiliation and highest gender inequality in countries affiliated to Islam.59 As Khaled Hroub disagreeing with statement that adherence to faith as general, providing the base for superior moral standards;
as his research found out that in Muslim countries located in MENA, considering to be some of the most religious societies in the world having highest rates of bad practice as a sexual harassment of women and lack of respect for public order, deepening gender inequality.60
On the other hand, Michael Ross is arguing in his book, The Oil Curse, that the countries in the region have a common religion, and broadly speaking common culture, so according him if these variables would be source of the problem, then women in the MENA countries should have about the same low economic and political status.61 He is adding that states with higher revenues flowing from oil drilling have the fewest women employed in non-agricultural workforce and therefore are less likely to grant female suffrage; on the other
57 Kate Lyons, “Majority of men in Middle East survey believe a woman's place is in the home,” The Guardian
58 Ibid.
59 Kamila Klingorova and Tomáš Havlicek, “Religion and gender inequality: The status of women in the societies of world religions,” p.3-5
60 Khaled Hroub, “The Curse of Religiosity,” Islam in the Middle East, (June 30, 2017), Available at:
https://en.qantara.de/content/islam-in-the-middle-east-the-curse-of-religiosity
61 Michael L. Ross, “The Oil Curse: How the Petroleum Wealth Shapes Development of the Nations,” (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2012) p.124
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hand states possessing with non significant amounts of oil were among the first countries in the region to grant female suffrage and tend to have more female in the workplace.62
The impact of religiosity on gender attitudes and gender inequality posses with a vast of existing literature, indicating the strong correlation between Islamic religiosity and gender inequality. There is missing part of literature supporting religiosity as a positive variable for women´s status improvement; however, on the other hand all the reviewed literature is suggesting that religion has negative impact on women´s status.
According to literature review and empirical observations, it is assumable that in all the Muslim majority petro states, Islamist religiosity and oil dependency are dragging down gender equality as observable in the case of MENA. However, there are four other Muslim majority petro states outside of this region, which are possessing with vast oil reserves having majority Muslim population and their women can enjoy relatively higher women´s status.
Therefore, the main purpose of this thesis is to solve this puzzle why women in some of the oil abundant majority Muslim countries can enjoy higher gender equality and in some Muslim majority petro countries cannot.
Education and Religion are two very important variables affecting and changing behaviour of societies for hundreds years, therefore the relationship between them, more preciously correlation between the level of religiosity and the level of education has been studied long time ago. These studies provide valuable sources of literature building causality between these two variables.
However, different studies show contrasted conclusions. Western countries indicate that the intensity of beliefs decreases with education, surprisingly attendance and religious practice increases. Moreover, it is important to add that research of Sacerdote and Glaeser was
62 Michael L. Ross, “The Oil Curse: How the Petroleum Wealth Shapes Development of the Nations,” (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2012) p.124
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conducted before new millennium.63 Smith is claimed before Sacerdote and Glaeser that religious people are having higher education than non-religious, which is not fitting into concept of countries located inside of MENA region.64
Recent scholarly works are pointing on the positive correlation with low religiosity and education has been changing in the past few decades.65 Recently, many countries, including MENA states are doing good job in closing gender educational gaps, logically from Western perspective leading into lowering levels of Islamist religiosity, consequently improving women´s status in MENA. Voas and McAndrew in recent years regressing a measure of religiosity on a set of individual controls have found a surprisingly positive relationship between education and religion. A vast majority of studies in recent years are suggesting a positive relationship between religion and education.66 Therefore, closing gender educational gaps in countries of MENA are most likely will not improve women´s status in the region by educating women to higher extent. However, the equal chance for education can increase the chances of women, seeking chance at labour market, what at certain scenarios might have a positive effect on emancipation of females in MENA region.