Chapter 4 Islam and Women´s Status in Malaysia
4.2 Cultural Pluralism and Women’s Status in Malaysia
4.2.4 Political Preferences as Determinant of ´Islamicity´ in Malaysia
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questionnaire provided, making Malaysian women more equal compared to women living in one of MENA countries.
4.2.4 Political Preferences as Determinant of ´Islamicity´ in Malaysia.
A connection between religion and politics is an integral part of every state, having bilateral relations, influencing each other. In Malaysia´s most conservative Islamic state of Kelantan, where (less than 4% of non-Muslims are living), Islamic party pushing for implementation of Sharia (Islamic law) is ruling for 28 years. 180 They have been democratically elected for 7 consecutive terms, pointing to the fact that people in Kelantan are conservative Islamist, preferring Islamic rule of their state rather than secularism. On May 9th, 2018, a general election took a place to national parliament in Malaysia, Islamist Parti Islam SeMalaysia (PAS), which has a stronghold in Kelantan, holds only two seats out of 222 in the national parliament.181 Pointing to the fact that conservative Islamic party has no chance in some other more culturally and religiously diverse places, only in a state with a low level of cultural diversity and high level of Islamic religiosity.
In Kelantan and Terengganu, where not even 4% of non-Muslim living in these states;
all the Muslim women working here must follow strict rules in accordance with Islam.
“Women working in the malls in east coast state must wear the tudung (head covering), there are separate payment counters for men and women in the supermarkets, and the call to prayer is proclaimed loudly five times a day to tell pious men to head to the mosque.”182
180 Amir Yusof, “Malaysia election: Winds of change in Kelantan as voters return home in droves,” (May 8, 2018), Available at: https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/malaysia-election-wind-of-change-in-kelantan-as-voters-return-10212170
181 Tan Hui Yee, “Malaysia election: Pollster Merdeka Center expects BN to win poll, but not popular vote,”
Straits Time, (Kuala Lumpur: May 8,2018), available at: https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/malaysia-election-pollster-merdeka-center-expects-bn-to-win-poll-but-not-popular-vote
182 Amir Yusof, “Malaysia election: Winds of change in Kelantan as voters return home in droves.”
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“Additionally, annual per capita income in Kelantan was RM12,812 in 2016 - less than a third of the RM38,887 for the whole of Malaysia and Terengganu state is right behind.”183
The author during his stay in Petaling Jaya (neighbouring city of Kuala Lumpur), observed worried faces of young people while mentioning two most Islamic conservatives parts of Malaysia. Since the author talked to many people, Muslim´s people who grew up or even visited Kelantan, they pointed out, that situation in these states is lacking not only economic progress, but also political progress. Young more progressive and educated people coming from these states are not any more satisfied with the politically-economic situation of Islamic parties, which they lean mostly on the support of older conservative voters as research poll pointed out. Their ideology of enforcing Islamic law is a very powerful tool in such a poor and remote states of Malaysia. It causes extreme support of their Islamic conservative voters, relying upon religious convictions, having a direct effect on conservative views of women´s position in the society.
A majority of people in Kelantan believe that Islam is the way of life then it might have an impact on the society as one participant of questionnaire indicated. Approximately 35% of respondents believe that Islam has an impact on gender inequality in Malaysia.
However, some respondents believe it has a positive and some negative impact on women´s status. Student of Islamic studies at University of Malaya indicated that religion is serving for women´s good, protecting women and not discriminating.184 Another male respondent coming from less religiously diverse part of Malaysia points out that religion like Islam is caring for all genders and inequality is rather caused by lifestyle than a religion.185
183 Amir Yusof, “Malaysia election: Winds of change in Kelantan as voters return home in droves.”
184 Questionnaire n.34
185 Questionnaire n.36
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Since in many Muslim families, women need to seek approval to work, based on questionnaire´s results, a significant majority of respondents believe that seeking approval for women to work is mandatory in Muslim societies. In some conservative households, men would not let women work, believing that it is better for women to stay at home and be a good wife.186 On the other hand, there are many liberal Muslims who acknowledge the negative impact of religion on women´s status, pointing out the fact that religion is influencing values, culture, traditions which are making women subordinate.187
4.3 Conclusion
This chapter confirmed hypothesis that higher level of religious pluralism can be a counter mitigating point to lessen negative forces of Islamist religion on women´s status in Malaysia. The results suggested a significant correlation between level of religious diversity, measured by percentage of non-Muslims living in particular state in Malaysia and level of
´Islamicity´, pointing how liberal or conservative Muslims are living in concrete state of Malaysia.
In comparison to MENA countries, Malaysia is possessing with high percentage of non-Muslims living together with majority of Muslim population. Therefore, the uniqueness of cultural pluralism in Malaysia is also serving as variable, mitigating negative forces of Islamic religion, causing in MENA region highest women subordinate as literature review suggested. The results of this chapter confirms that cultural pluralism is playing important role making status of Malaysian women better off compared to women living in MENA region.
Reviewing election results of two most religiously conservative states of Malaysia, Kelantan and Terengganu, pointed out that majority of people are holding very conservative
186 Questionnaire n.17
187 Questionnaire n27
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views based on their polls preferences. The Islamic political party (PAS), governing state of Kelantan for 28 consecutive years is trying to pass implementation of Sharia law. The poor economic and political conditions connected with religiously conservative viewpoints of Muslims living in these states are obvious according to results of the questionnaires and interviews. People coming from remote parts of Malaysia, are conservative Muslims, influencing position of women in the society by holding conservative views on roles of women.
Therefore, correlation not only numerical, but also correlation throughout the respondents, based on the questionnaires and interviews pointed out that cultural pluralism is powerful and credible variable mitigating negative forces of Islamic religiosity, reducing level of conservativeness of Muslims living in multicultural environment, making Malaysian Muslim´s women compared with women located in one of MENA countries more empowered.
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Chapter 5. Conclusion
A thesis has analyzed the effects of oil revenues and Islamist religion on gender inequality, indirectly answering why women in Malaysia as oil abundant country are doing better, than in countries of MENA, where women suffer from highest gender inequality gaps.
Therefore, the first section of thesis provided the scheme of how oil and Islam is affecting gender inequality index in countries of MENA, proving the far-reaching negative consequences of oil and Islam, keeping women subordinate inside of this region.
According to the literature review and empirical observations, thesis assumed that in all Muslim majority petro states, Islamist religiosity and oil dependency are dragging down gender equality. However, there are four Muslim majority petro states outside of MENA region, which are possessing with vast oil reserves having Muslim majority population and their women can enjoy relatively higher women´s status. Existing literature unveiled the significant correlation of both independent variables of Islamist religiosity and oil dependency on gender inequality index, directly affecting women´s status in Muslim majority Petro-states.
By reviewing the development of gender inequality index in petro-states, the findings pointed out that in some of oil abundant countries, women are doing relatively better in terms of gender equality compared to the others. Moreover, the available evidence seems to suggest that the Dutch Disease theory is a useful theoretical tool for explaining this phenomenon in MENA region.
The female labour supply is shrinking caused by higher male incomes and government oil´s transfers, keeping women out of the workfare. The demand for female labour decreases as oil export-oriented, mainly at countries with high dependence on oil export, causing female
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dominated manufacturing to be disadvantaged by negative workings of Dutch disease, causing the highest gender inequality to happen in the region of MENA.
Since more oil is produced in the certain country, it makes harder for manufacturing companies to remain profitable. The rise in the exchange rates makes imported goods cheaper, the factories that most likely hire women will be discouraged by Dutch disease; consequently, most of the jobs will be suitable for men. Moreover, women due to higher income levels and also declining initiatives, caused by oil´s social redistribution system in MENA states, encouraging women rather stay at household, not contributing into economy nor contributing into improving women´s status, as traditional beliefs together with the economic situation are allowing for households to do so. Daily life may be more comfortable for women while staying at home, only taking care of the household, but also more strongly domi¬nated by men.
Moreover, the oil revenues serve as blocking point for democracy to penetrate into political systems of most countries in the region, strengthening autocratic regimes. As the prices of oil are set up high, autocratic regimes in the region are providing relocation of oil revenues to keep themselves empowered, reducing the chance for women to exit household, since it is not needed as in the case of UAE. Oil revenues allowing governments to conduct direct transfers, limiting women chances to seek opportunity outside of their households, as money is not spent into the diversification of the economy, but rather for the strengthening of the ruling regimes, in what could otherwise provide chances for women to seek employment.
The dominance of the oil sector in MENA region causes an economic diversification to be generally low in the countries highly dependent on the carbon resources. As a high inflow of oil´s money into the region, the effects of Dutch disease is keeping private sector considerably small and less significant compared to public one. This fact is remaining state
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institution powerful and less accountable against its own population, keeping people pacified by oil wealth redistribution. Money transfers together with traditional beliefs, influenced by religion are overall decreasing the will of women to work. Therefore, the oil reliance mixed together with Islamic religion is strongly affiliated, with the low status of women affecting MENA countries to a high extent.
Majority of men in Middle East believe that a woman's place is at home. This old conservative views in the MENA countries shaped by religion are keeping long distance for not only men, but whole society to fully accept and support equality of women in MENA region, as in many parts of the world. A vast majority of the population of Middle East and North Africa views gender inequality as a way of life affected by long-term traditions and culture, rather than religious beliefs. However, the existing work together with empirical studies pointed out the significant correlation between Islam and gender inequality.
Moreover, the religions maintain male social dominance within societal structures, but empirical research on developments in the individual religions, especially in the case of Islam;
indicate a negative shift in society towards a decreased status of women. In most of the cultures and religions, conservative traditions prevailing regarding faith are disadvantaging women rather than men. Religious beliefs are penetrating everyday interactions, impacting women´s status in the society. The first section also unveiled, that religious people have more conservative views of the role of women in the society, making religion a significant barrier for women to overcome.
In the second part of the thesis, the case study of Malaysia serves as a counter-argument, proving the existence of counter variables, mitigating the negative influence of oil revenues and Islam religiosity, explaining why Malaysian Muslim women are more empowered than Muslim´s women living in MENA region. Malaysia poses significant
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reserves of crude oil, where women are relatively equal to their male counterparts according to gender equality index. However, Malaysia compared to MENA countries is not economically dependent only on natural resources. In the 1970s, Malaysian GDP was fulfilled mainly by natural resources. However, the fluctuation of prices of natural resources made economic dependency very risky and hard to predict for aggregate economy. Thus, Malaysian government took necessary steps to move forward to an economic transition by diversifying the economy, what over time had a positive effect on female labour force participation, indirectly decreasing gender gap in Malaysia.
United Arab Emirates, as a country with highest economic complexity index within states located in MENA region, is still significantly lacking behind Malaysian economic complexity index, pointing on the fact that MENA countries are dependent on the oil resources to the much higher extent. Therefore, by comparing the role of oil in gender inequality between MENA and Malaysia, the significant differences might occur. Thus, economic diversification is keeping women working in various industries, directly influencing gender inequality index, making women in Malaysia more equal to men.
Based on the hypothesis, states across Malaysia, possessing with a higher degree of religious diversity, they are composed out of more liberal Muslim societies, having a more liberal vision of Islamist components, which are negatively influencing gender inequality. On the other hand, states across Malaysia, which are lacking the higher degree of religious pluralism, would have a more conservative perspective on roles of women shaped by religious beliefs. Significantly positive correlation of Islamic religion and women´s status was displayed at literature review; therefore, more liberal ideas have a positive effect on gender inequality, making Malaysian women more equal towards the men.
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Examination of the case study of Malaysia proved the validity of the hypothesis that multiculturalism has a positive effect on the gender equality. The Muslim´s respondents coming from more culturally and religiously diverse states of Malaysia are holding more liberal views on the role of women, based on the questionnaires´ results. The analyses of the election polls also pointed out the fact that Muslim´s coming from more remote areas of Malaysia, possessing with a small number of non-Muslims are voting for parties promoting conservative ideas intertwined to a high extent with Islamist way of governing the state, causing higher gender inequality. On the other hand Malaysian states with a higher level of religious pluralism, having a high percentage of non-Muslims living together with Muslims is affecting gender equality in a positive way, making Malaysian women more equal in comparison to women living in one of the states of MENA.
The mixture of long traditions intertwined with Islam and oil revenues are having disastrous consequences undermining women opportunities inside of MENA region, impacting gender inequality index in a negative way. However, this thesis suggesting that Dutch disease and effects of Islamic religiosity have various impacts on different Muslim majority Petro states. Regarding the fact that Malaysia posses with Muslim majority population and vast oil reserves, the religious pluralism and economic diversification serve as credible variables to mitigate the negative effects of oil and Islam, making Malaysian women more equal towards the men in comparison to women in MENA countries.
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non-Muslim Age Gender Occupation Islamicity
1 20.9% 20 F Student 2
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43 30.8% 22 F Student 2
44 56.0% 22 F Student 2
45 41.2% 22 F Student 1
46 56.0% 27 F teacher 1
47 41.2% 22 F Student 3
48 41.2% 21 F Student 3
49 30.8% 21 F Student 3
50 41.2% 25 F N/A 3
51 41.2% 21 F Student 2
52 41.2% 26 F Student 2
53 41.2% 26 F Student 5
54 41.2% 22 F Student 2
55 30.2% 21 N/A Supervisor 2
56 30.2% 20 F Student 2
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