Research Purpose and Methodology

The main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between work design, person-job fit, job satisfaction and job performance in Thailand in order to understand Thais’ working conditions. To add to it, this study also compares Thailand’s data with Taiwan’s data, in order to understand differences between two countries and also leads to an improvement on cross culture work relations.

In order to complete this study, first, the researcher translates the English version of work design questionnaire that was created by Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) into Thai version in order to ask Thai people to fill up this questionnaire. After that, the researcher asks people who are an expert in English and Thai to do a back translation, edits until the Thai version and English version have the same meaning.

What’s more, the researcher also translates Chinese questions of P-J fit, job satisfaction and job performance created by Chiou, Wen and Liao (2008) into Thai in order to collect the same data as Taiwanese sample.

Secondly, the researcher has conducted pilot studies by asking 35 people with different kinds of skills, knowledge and job positions, to do the questionnaire in order to make sure that the questionnaire is able to understand by everyone. Furthermore, a formal study is conducted by asking 220 participants to fill up this questionnaire.

However, there are only 204 valid samples. After that, the researcher uses confirmatory factor analysis to check the validity of WDQ.

Third, the researcher conducts basic analysis on the research variables for Thais; which is the effect of independent variables on dependent variable. Then, the researcher runs a statistic analysis and analyzes sample data in order to check whether or not the hypothesis is supported in terms of mediation effects.

Particularly, this research also compares Thais’ sample result with Taiwan’s sample result in order to understand how nationality can effect on work outcomes of two countries, which is very important for an organization. For Taiwanese data, the researcher uses data from previous study of Chiou (2009), Chiou, Ou and Chou (in press) and Chiou, Wen and Liao (2008) in order to compare with Thai data.

Chapter 2 Literature Review

In this chapter, the following subjects are introduced: First of all, this chapter covers the definition and concept of work design, personality-job fit and work outcomes. Secondly, this chapter also discusses about Thai culture and compares the differences between Thai and Taiwanese culture. Finally, this chapter analyzes about the hypothesis that using in this research.

2.1 Concepts of Work Design

The study of work design has a long history. It is not only be able to use the word ‘work design’, but can also use the word ‘job design, work characteristics, job characteristics, job demands and job content’ because all these words were viewed to be related to the terms of job design or work design (Morgeson & Campion, 2003).

“Job design is the process of putting together a range of tasks, duties and responsibilities to create a composite for individuals to undertake in their work and to regard as their own. It is crucial: not only is it the basis of individual satisfaction and achievement at work, it is necessary to get the job done efficiently, economically, reliably and safely” (Torrington, Hall, Taylor, & Atikinson, 2011: page 84).

Job design refers to the way of combining different small tasks together in order to complete a job (Robbins & Coulter, 2006). It pays more attention on job details in which can effect on people mind and motivation (Campion, 1988). Opatha (2002) thought that job design is to arrange work duty that gets from organization into action. Each work design has its own consequence, in which one consequence can effect on another (Campion & Thayer, 1985). However, Truss (2012) argued that job design idea does not gain much attention from employers and policymakers.

Work design has a great impact on organization as it effect on the outcome;

such as, efficiency and satisfaction (Deming, 1986; Jaran & Gryna, 1988; Waldman, 1994). Work design factor does not only come from inside an organization, but can also be factor that comes from outside an organization (Herzberg, 1966). Ali and Aroosiya (2010) quoted that job design has a great impact on performance of employee in an organization.

According to the feature of job, job design should focus on job enlargement and job engagement (Ford 1969; Herzberg 1966), or motivation of job characteristics (Griffin, 1982; Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Hackman & Oldham,1980).

Later on, human resource research came up with more theoretical and practical of job design research (Lepak & Snell, 1999). Delery and Shaw (2001) and Tsui, Pearce, Porter and Tripoli (1997) thought that the policies of HR should be differ according to each organization. And it would be best if each organization have

a great team of human resource because they can divide different kinds of jobs to employee by knowing which people specialized in doing which jobs.

In order to understand job design impact, Zareen, Razzag and Mujtaba (2013) thought that it is important to understand four main ideas, which are, first of all, to understand job design’s role to get most productive outcome. Secondly is to understand root of job design. Third is to sort out benefit of job design. Finally is to analyze the relation between job design and performance of employee.

Job design is a series of tasks that worker has to finish within a given time (Griffin, 1987). Work design is to go beyond employee needs in order to reach personal’s goal (Jackson, 2004).

However, Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) thought that the word ‘job design’

only cover a narrow range. Therefore, they viewed that it would be more suitable to use the word ‘work design’ as work refers a broader characteristics, which included every aspects need in job.

Figure 1: Expanded work design model

Source: Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang (2007, page 1334)

Summing it up, Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) thought that work design should focus on four important characteristics, which are task characteristics, knowledge characteristics, social characteristics and contextual characteristics. The researcher thought that these four characteristics are best-described work design, therefore this study uses these characteristics to be the main characteristics in describing work design. Moreover, MPS is mainly concerning with job, which can show the prominence of job. Thence, this research would discuss more about MPS.

2.1.1 Dimensions of Task Characteristics

Task is one of the features that have been included in every kinds of work.

Task characteristics are one of the tools used to understand motivation of work design. It mainly concerned with job and how to complete the job (Morgeson &

Humphrey, 2006). Hackman and Lawler (1971) had done a research about job characteristics reaction, in which result indicated that it has positive relation with motivation, satisfaction, performance and absenteeism. Hackman and Oldham (1976) told that autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance and feedback from the job could make people feel more satisfy with their job. Fried and Ferris (1987) also found a strong support that job satisfaction is influenced from these characteristics.

Therefore, this research would include these five characteristics in order to understand work design.

Autonomy. Autonomy has an origin from two Greek words, in which “autos”

mean self and “nomos” mean law. Therefore, after combining these two words became autonomos, which means having law by itself. Later on, this word was changed to be autonomia. And in the early 17^th century, autonomia was changed again to be autonomy as we use today. Autonomy is the most important thing in describing work design (Campion, 1988; Hackman & Oldham 1976). Waymer (1995) thought that autonomy is used to operate activity with freedom of using method, schedule and criteria. Autonomy is known as giving employee freedom to schedule work by themselves (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). Recently, autonomy is viewed as giving freedom and independence in using their way to complete work (Breaugh, 1985;

Wall, Jackson, & Davids, 1992; Wall, Jackson & Mullarkey, 1995). Employee can make decision on job about what and how to do by themselves (Truss et al, 2013).

Autonomy can be viewed as giving freedom in ‘work scheduling autonomy, decision-making autonomy and work methods autonomy’ (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006).

Work scheduling autonomy means the freedom of scheduling task by himself or herself. Decision-making autonomy means the freedom of making decision by himself or herself. Work method autonomy means the freedom to choose method to complete the task by himself or herself.

Task Variety. It is also known as skill variety. Task variety means work that requires employee to perform many tasks to complete the work (Morgeson &

Humphrey, 2006). By using task variety, it would give a chance for employee to grow by getting new experience (Herzberg, 1968). It is concerning with an enjoyment of performing a numerable of tasks (Sims, Szilagzi & Keller, 1976). Fruitfulness of work is mainly derived from task variety (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Morgeson, Humphrey &

Nahrgang, 2007).

Task Significance. This refers to an impact on others, not only towards people in organization, but also outside organization (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). As if employee knows how meaningful this work can impact on others, they would rather choose to try their best on their work (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). The work would

give employee a greater experience, if it were involved with physical or psychological impact on others (Hackman & Oldham, 1980).

Task Identity. This refers to one requirement of job that has to complete the whole set of task, in which carried an end-to-end responsibility (Truss et al, 2013).

Task identity required to complete the whole work job that has an obvious result since the beginning till the end; such as, completing service or product, which can be view as more interesting than just doing only some particular thing apart from all jobs that has to be done (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Task identity is to complete whole work and can be easily identify the result of work (Sims, Szilagyi, & Keller, 1976).

Feedback From Job. Feedback is information that can get directly after performing job (Truss et al, 2013). While finishing some job, it would also obtain a clear feedback about your performance on that particular job (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). It is mainly focus on result of performance in which a particular activity gives, not from other people. The feedback is provided by the job that has been performed by each person (Hackman & Oldham, 1980).

2.1.2 Dimensions of Knowledge Characteristics

Knowledge characteristics refers to individual who has to use knowledge, skill and ability in order to complete job (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Campion and McClelland (1993) argued that knowledge is more important than task because it is more useful in enhancing activities. Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) thought that job complexity, information processing, problem solving, skill variety, and specification should be involved with demands of work knowledge.

Job Complexity. This means the difficulty of performing a job, which is opposed to task simplicity (Campion, 1988). Job complexity refers to more demanding of skill in order to complete a complexity task (Edwards, Skully & Brtek, 2000). Job complexity has to use high-level of skills. Even though, job complexity can lead to job satisfaction, but with promoting too much on job complexity can also get a bad result instead of good result as an outcome (Morgeson, Humphrey &

Nahrgang, 2007).

Information Processing. This concerns with paying attention, monitoring or arranging on a concerning information (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007).

Previous researches quoted that more or less information to be monitored should depend on the different level of jobs (Martin & Wall, 1989; Wall & Jackson, 1995;

Wall, Jackson & Mullarkey, 1995). Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) supported that in the progress of getting job done, the higher level of job would require much more information than lower level of job. The higher demand of information needs indicated the more difficult that a particular job has (Campion, 1989).

Problem Solving. It refers to an idea of solving problem (Jackson, Wall, Martin & Davids, 1993; Wall & Jackson, 1995). Problem solving is an idea or a way to get problem or error correct (Wall, Corbett, Clegg, Jackson & Martin, 1990).

Problem solving is mainly concerns with getting a particular concept of solution in

order to solve problem (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007). This is mainly refers to find the best solution for solving error or problem that is facing in order to get job done.

Skill Variety. It refers to the one who has to use different kinds of skill to get the job done (Truss et al, 2013). Skill variety involved with using different kind of skills and talents people have in order to complete their work. By doing this, it considered to be a valuable experience for individual who has to deal with such challenging tasks, in which he or she has to use all skills that he or she has to complete the task (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) viewed that it is challenging for dealing with a job that has to use varieties of skills.

Specification. This required people who really understand the situation and also specialize in performing tasks (Campion, 1988). Morgeson and Campion (2002) quoted that specification in work design would lead to get job satisfaction.

Specification is concerning with a deep understanding of particular stuffs (Morgeson

& Humphrey, 2006). By using a clear understanding, specification can lead to a greater job result (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007).

2.1.3 Dimensions of Social Characteristics

Social characteristics mean the interaction with inside and outside an organization. This refers to your status in society. Previous studies had focused on the environment of society in this kind of research (Trist & Bamfort, 1951; Turner &

Lawrence, 1965). Parker and Wall (2001) supported that social characteristics is very important for job. But this field does not really gain much attention from researchers (Morgeson & Campion, 2003). Hackman and Lawler (1971) thought this is mainly concerned with people and friends. Stress on job can be reduced by social characteristics (Karasek, 1979; Karasek, Triantis, & Chaudhy, 1982). And social characteristics could make people be more willing to work (Adler & Kwon, 2002).

However, Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) thought that social characteristics should include social support, independence, interaction outside organization and feedback from others, which have been used to identify in this study. As social support was viewed as one tool to make people get job satisfaction.

Social Support. Social support means helps or advises that get from others;

such as, manager or colleague (Karasek, 1979; Karasek, Brisson, Kawakami, Houtoman, Bongers, & Amick, 1998). It can empower and reduce stress (Laker &

Cohen, 2000). Social support can make people have a greater well-being and less unhealthy effect (Autonucci & Jackson, 1987; Schwarzer & Leppin, 1991). Later on, this idea got a support by Ryan and Deci (2001), and Wrzeniewski, Dutton and Debebe (2003). Somehow social support does not only come from people in organization, but also from outside an organization that they interact with.

Independence. This refers to job that has to rely on others or others have to rely on your job (Kiggundu, 1981). Independence means jobs that are related between works of one another (Morgeson, Humphrey, & Nahrgang, 2007). Morgeson and

Humphrey (2006) thought that independence should be divided in two types, which are initiate independence and received independence. Initiate independence means that job has to finish before the rest of the job can be finished, while received independence means other jobs has to finish before this job start.

Interaction Outside Organization. This word is also known as ‘dealing with others’ (Sims, Szilagyi, & Keller, 1976). It has to work with others closely in order to get task done (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). Interaction outside organization means making a contact with other people outside an organization (Morgeson, Humphrey, &

Nahrgang, 2007). It is one of the requirements of job to contact with the outsider by using such kinds of communication (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). By interacting with others outside organization, he or she would gain more knowledge and experience by doing so.

Feedback From Others. It is the feedback that employee can receive from their manager or colleague about what he or she has been done (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). This kind of feedback comes from people inside the company, which is more related to personal feedback (Morgeson, Humphrey, & Nahrgang, 2007). Hackman and Lawler (1971) thought that feedback comes from people in the place where he or she works.

2.1.4 Dimensions of Work Context

It is including a broad viewed of I/O psychology and management (Morgeson

& Campion, 2003). Work context is mainly concerned with physical and environmental demand in work place (Campion & Thayer, 1985). This includes ergonomics, physical demands, work conditions and equipment use (Morgeson &

Humphrey, 2006). Truss et al (2013) supported that whenever the work has to be made, these features should be taken into consideration because work context can also effect on work outcomes.

Ergonomics. It concerned with an appropriate posture in performing job (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007). It is an important factor towards work design (Campion & Thayer, 1985; Edwards, Skully, & Brtek, 1999). In working place, ergonomics are concerned with a suitable lighting, desk, chair, lifting, etc.

Physical Demands. It is a physical need in performing a job (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007). Physical demands are mainly concerned with endurance, strength and others involving in doing a particular activity (Edwards, Skully, & Brtek, 2000; Stone & Gueutal, 1985). Physical demands involved with common posture, required posture or even a posture in critical situation¹

Work Conditions. This is concerned with job environment (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007). Work condition is the setting of working stuffs where it took place (Truss et al, 2013). For work conditions, it is related to health (Stone &

Gueutal, 1985), atmosphere, noise and free from dirt (Campion & McClelland, 1991;

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

1 Source: Performing a physical demands analysis (2009) IAPA

Edwards, Skully, & Brtek, 1999). Saari and Judge (2004) thought that work conditions could impact on job satisfaction.

Equipment Use. Work equipment is every tools that worker use while working.² It refers to lots of tools that have been used in order to get the job done (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Although there is not much attention on equipment use, but Goodman (1986) and Harvey, Friedman, Hakel and Cornelius (1988) do mention about this.

2.1.5 Definition of Motivating Potential Score (MPS)

Motivating potential score was invented by Hackman and Oldham (1975). It is used as the way to calculate job characteristic model or JCM. Basically, motivating potential score is a score used to measure the degree of high skill variety, task identity or task significance, and/or high autonomy, and/or high feedback (Hackman &

Oldham, 1976).

The formula is calculated by using five dimensions, which are skill variety plus task identity plus task significance divided by 3, after that multiply by autonomy and multiply with feedback. When computing MPS, if there is a near-zero score of autonomy or feedback, the MPS score would reduce to near-zero. However, if there is any increase in core dimensions, the total score of MPS also increase. But if task variety, task identity or task significance is near-zero score, it means that particular dimension is not meaningful in this place (Hackman & Oldham, 1976).

The MPS was used in many researches around the world (Hinton & Biderman, 1995; Johns, 1978; Millette & Gange, 2008; Oldham & Cummings, 1996; Orpen, 1979; Zaccaro & Stone, 1988). Therefore, MPS became an important ideal of study.

Traditionally, the research of work design is based from job diagnostic survey (JDS) of Hackman and Oldham (1980), which included task variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback from job, these are dimensions that used to calculate MPS.

Campion and Thayer (1985) had used job diagnostic survey to expand into multimethod job design questionnaire (MJDQ), which had been used in other researches; such as, in Johns, Xie and Fang (1992). By the mean time, multimethod job design questionnaire has been expanded into more details; therefore, using job diagnostic survey to test on the job design is not enough. Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) has expanded the idea of job design into work design questionnaire (WDQ), which has been used in this study.

2.2 Concepts of Person-Job Fit (P-J Fit)

Person-job fit theory is related to personal issue, whether feel fit with job that has been assign to or not (Careless, 2005). P-J fit is to match knowledge, skills and

Person-job fit theory is related to personal issue, whether feel fit with job that has been assign to or not (Careless, 2005). P-J fit is to match knowledge, skills and