工作設計與個人工作適配對於工作滿意度與工作表現之影響：泰國與台灣工作者的實證研究

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(1)6. 6. Graduate Institute of Management College of Management National Taiwan Normal University Master Thesis. 5. 1. 0. 5. 5 The Impact of P-J Fit and Work Design on Job Satisfaction and Job Performance: A Study of Thai and Taiwanese Employees. Nicha Sukparungsee. Advisor: Chiou, Hawjeng Ph.D.. June, 2016.

(2) Abstract Work design has a great impact on work outcomes, especially on job satisfaction and job performance. As work design combines all kinds of work together, for those who feel fit, they will feel satisfied and perform well on their job. In this research, the researcher had examined on the relationship between work design, person-job fit, nationality and work outcomes, taking into account the culture differences between two countries, which are Thailand and Taiwan. Even though Thailand and Taiwan are both Asian countries that shares a lot of cultural practices, both countries still have some different way of practices; such as, Thai people are normative, while Taiwanese are pragmatic. In this point, Taiwanese save and invest more for future life. Therefore, this research predicts that effects of work design on person-job fit and work outcomes of Taiwanese would be stronger than Thai people. The survey was conducted in Thailand in order to collect data for determining the impact of work design, person-job fit and nationality towards work outcomes on Thai people. And the researcher also compared Thai data with Taiwanese data in order to see the difference between the two countries. The data was collected in a full length of different industries in Thailand. The sample data had 204 samples, which consisted of 163 females (79.9%) and 41 males (20.1%). The researcher then performed a series of analysis in order to understand the situations of work design, P-J fit, job performance and job satisfaction. The results of the analysis can mostly support the hypothesis. For instance, Work design can predict P-J fit and work outcomes (job satisfaction and job performance). P-J fit can predict work outcomes, and also play an important role as a mediator. However, the moderation of nationality only partially supported the hypothesis because differences only exist when the impact of work design on P-J fit, which eventually impact on work outcomes is stronger for Thais. On the contrary, the impact of work design on job satisfaction is stronger for Taiwanese, which means that good work design makes Taiwanese feel more satisfied with their job. In conclusion, work design is very important because it can have an effect on work outcomes. However, the relationship between work design and work outcomes becomes stronger when it passes through P-J fit. Thence, work design impacts on P-J fit, which finally impacts work outcomes. Moreover, the differences in culture can also have an impact on differences of this relationship in different countries. Finally, the implication of this research for work design and the practical methods of work design along with limitations and recommendation to future study were discussed.. Key words: Work design, person-job fit, job satisfaction, job performance, nationality I".

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(4) Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………..…………………………….…………….... Table of Contents………………………………………………...……….…………….... Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………………….……….……………..... 1.1 Background………………………….……………….……….…………........ 1.2 Comparison between Thais and Taiwanese..….……….…………….............. 1.3 Reasons for Conducting Research….……………..……….………….…....... 1.4 Research Purpose and Methodology………………………….…………........ Chapter 2: Literature Review……………………………..……....……….………...….... 2.1 Concepts of Work Design……………………………...……….……...…….. 2.1.1 Dimensions of Task Characteristics……….…………….…….............. 2.1.2 Dimensions of Knowledge Characteristics.…..….……….…..….......... 2.1.3 Dimensions of Social Characteristics…………………...……............... 2.1.4 Dimensions of Work Context………………...........................……....... 2.1.5 Definition of Motivating Potential Score (MPS) …….………..……..... 2.2 Concepts of Person-Job Fit (P-J Fit) ……………...………….…...……….... 2.3 Concepts of Work Outcomes………………...…..………...………………… 2.3.1 Concepts of Job Satisfaction…...……………………...…......…....…… 2.3.1.1 The Theories of Job Satisfaction ………………….………....... 2.3.1.1.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory…………........ 2.3.1.1.2 Two Factor Theory.………..……….………............. 2.3.1.1.3 ERG Theory…...………………….……………….... 2.3.1.2 Relation of Job Satisfaction and Work Design..…..................... 2.3.2 Concepts of Job Performance………..………………….………........... 2.4 Comparison of Culture Differences………………………………………...... 2.4.1 Brief Introduction to Thailand ………………………………………… 2.4.2 Features of Thai Culture…………………………………………..…... 2.4.2.1 Previous Studies of Job Satisfaction in Thailand…………....... 2.4.3 Brief Introduction to Taiwanese Culture………………….................... 2.4.4 Differentiation between Thai Culture and Taiwanese Culture………... 2.5 Hypothesis……………………….…………….……………........................... 2.5.1 Influence of Work Design on Work Outcomes……….…………..…... 2.5.2 Influence of Work Design on Person-Job Fit………............................. 2.5.3 Influence of Person-Job Fit on Work Outcomes………........................ 2.5.4 Mediation Effect of Person-Job Fit on Work Design and Work Outcomes........…...………….……………….…....……….…….….… 2.5.5 Moderation Effect of Nationality on Work Design, Person-Job Fit and Work Outcomes….…...………….………….......……….…….……… Chapter 3: Research Methodology………………….………....……………....…………. 3.1 Sample……………………..……………..……...……….……….………….. 3.1.1 Pilot Study…………………………………….…….…………….......... 3.1.2 Formal Study………………………..……………..………….………... III". I III 1 1 2 4 4 6 6 8 9 10 11 12 12 14 14 16 16 17 17 17 18 19 19 21 23 25 26 28 28 29 30 30 31 32 32 32 32.

(5) 3.2 Instruments……..………………………..…………………….…………...… 33 3.2.1 Measures of Work Design………….…………...…………...…………. 33 3.2.2 Measures of Person-Job Fit (P-J Fit)………..... .…………...………….. 36 3.2.3 Measures of Work Outcomes……………...….…………...…………… 36 3.2.3.1 Measures of Job Satisfaction………….…………...…………. 36 3.2.3.2 Measures of Job Performance……....….. .…………...………. 36 3.2.4 Taiwanese Data……………………..……..…....…………...…………. 37 3.3 Research Procedure…………………………......……….………...…………. 37 3.4 Analysis…………………………..………..………….…………...…………. 38 3.4.1 Descriptive Analysis and Data Screening …………...…...…………..... 38 3.4.2 Analysis of Measurement Tool……………….…………...……………. 39 3.4.3 Hypothesis Testing…………………………….…………...…............... 39 3.4.4 Analysis of Mediation and Moderation………...…….............…............ 39 3.4.1.1 Procedures of Mediation………………..…………....…............. 39 3.4.1.2 Procedures of Moderation.………...…..………………............... 40 Chapter 4: Results.………...…..………………………………..…………...…...........….. 44 4.1 Reliability and Validity Testing…………………….…………...............……. 44 4.1.1 Work Design…………………………………….…………...............…. 44 4.1.2 Job Satisfaction and Job Performance…….…….…………...............…. 46 4.2 Description of Variables and Correlation Analysis…..…………...............….. 46 4.2.1 Description of Variables and Correlation Analysis of Thai Data…......... 46 4.2.1.1 Descriptive Statistics of the Variables of Thai Data……………. 46 4.2.1.2 Correlation between the Constructs of Thai Data………………. 46 4.2.2 Description of Variables and Correlation Analysis of Taiwanese Data… 47 4.2.2.1 Descriptive Statistics of the Variables of Taiwanese Data……… 47 4.2.2.2 Correlation between the Constructs of Taiwanese Data………… 48 4.3 Hypothesis Testing…………………………………...…………...............…... 48 4.3.1 Using Work Design and Person-Job Fit to Predict Work Outcomes….... 48 4.3.1.1 Work Design and Person-Job Fit…….…………...……............. 48 4.3.1.2 Person-Job Fit and Work Outcomes….…………...……............ 50 4.3.2 Mediation of Person-Job Fit on Work Design and Work Outcomes…… 51 4.3.2.1 Mediation between MPS and Work Outcomes…….………..…. 51 4.3.2.2 Mediation between Work Design and Work Outcomes………... 54 4.3.3 Moderation between Work Design and Work Outcomes…..…………... 56 4.3.3.1 Moderation of Nationality on MPS (Work Design) and Person-Job Fit……..…………...….…………...….…………...….………... 56 4.3.3.2 Moderation of Nationality on Person-Job Fit and Work Outcomes…………...….…………...….…………...….……….. 58 4.3.3.2.1 Moderation of Nationality on Person-Job Fit and Job Satisfaction………………….…………...….………... 58 4.3.3.2.2 Moderation of Nationality on Person-Job Fit and Job Performance…………….…………...……...………... 58 4.3.3.3 Moderation of Nationality on Work Design and Work Outcomes 62 IV".

(6) 4.3.3.3.1 Moderation of Nationality on Work Design and Job Satisfaction.……………..………….......................…… 62 4.3.3.3.2 Moderation of Nationality on Work Design and Job Performance..……………….…………...…................ 62 4.3.3.4 Moderation of Nationality on Work Design, Person-Job Fit and Work Outcomes……………….…………..………………. 66 4.3.3.4.1 Moderation of Nationality on Work Design, Person-Job Fit and Job Satisfaction……...….…………...…......... 66 4.3.3.4.2 Moderation of Nationality on Work Design, Person-Job Fit and Job Performance……...….…………...…....... 66 Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusions…………………….…………...…..……............ 71 5.1 Summary of Results of Hypothesis Testing..……..…………...………........... 71 5.2 Summary of the Findings…………………………….…………...…….......... 75 5.2.1 Work Design is a Strong Predictor of Person-Job fit and Work Outcomes…………………….…………...…..……............................... 75 5.2.2 Person-Job Fit is an Important Mediator………...…………………….. 75 5.2.3 The Moderation of Culture Differences is Complicated……………..... 76 5.2.4 The Differentiation of Effect of Outcome……………………………… 77 5.3 Conclusions…………………………………………….………….................. 77 5.4 Implications of Management Practices………………..…………...............… 78 5.4.1 The Value of Work Design and Person-Job Fit..……………................. 78 5.4.2 The Role of Culture ………………………….…………...…................. 79 5.5 Limitations and Recommendations…………………….………….................. 79 5.5.1 Limitations……………………………………...…………...............…. 79 5.5.2 Recommendations………………………….…………...…............….... 80 References…………………………………………………..……..…………...............… 82 Appendix…………………………………………………….…….…………...............… 98. V".

(7) Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background Trade never falls asleep. When the sun sets in one part of the world, the sun always rises in the other part of the world. The fact is that time is always moving, and world trading also never ends. Trade becomes important in every country, as no country can live apart from one another. To be more open, each country tries to trade with more and more countries. Recently, Thailand and Taiwan also opened up their countries for trading among each other. To the best of our knowledge, more Thai people settle in Taiwan, while Taiwan companies also set up branches in Thailand. On one hand, the statistics from National Immigration Agency showed that the total number of Thai people in Taiwan is getting higher. From the end of July 2015, the total amount of Thai residents in Taiwan was 132,770. One month later, it increased to 132,942. Fortunately, it rose to 133,194 in September 2015. On the other hand, Taiwan’s minister of economic affairs’ statistic showed that in 2014 Taiwanese invested 101.1 million US dollar in Thailand, compared to only half year of 2015 where Taiwanese investment in Thailand rose to 386.07 million US dollar. Thailand is well known as the land of smiles. Most people want to be happy in their life and work. Therefore, they try to find jobs that can fulfill their happiness. It appeared that when people are not satisfied with their jobs, they would prefer to quit and find new jobs. It is important to keep in mind that in Thailand, job satisfaction, job performance and person-job fit are important dimensions in their careers. Furthermore, this research is not only conducted in Thailand, but also compares cultural differences with Taiwan data. By doing so, it can benefit both countries’ citizens to understand the cultural differences of one another. From previous researches, there were lots of studies about job satisfaction in an organization in Thailand (Chompoopong, 2010; Jubprung, 2011; Kitipraprukkul, 2010; Khumsin & Mungmee, 2010; Koompai, 2010; Kreehirun, 2007; Kumnuan, 2011; Nookoonungaree, 2012; Samuckjit & Jarinto, 2012; Sukroesakit, 2011). However, no research has used work design model to conduct study in Thailand before. What is work design? Work design means combining all tasks together in order to carry out a particular job within a given period of time. It includes four important characteristics, which are task characteristics, knowledge characteristics, social characteristics and work context. Work design is one of the important theories to understand how work can impact on each employee because work can directly or indirectly impact an employee’s behavior, which could significantly have an effect on their work outcome. This model is basically derived from the job characteristics model, or known as JCM of Hackman and Oldham (1976). The job characteristic model is a core dimension that has been used to deal with job characteristics in the work place. It describes the relationship between job characteristics, psychological !. 1.

(8) thinking and work outcomes. The core dimension of job characteristics model are skill variety, task identity, task significant, autonomy and feedback. With the core of job dimensions, it leads to critical psychological states, which could affect the outcomes. MPS score has been provided to evaluate magnitude of motivating potential effect of core dimension of work design. Previous literatures supported that MPS score can strongly predicted critical psychological outcome (Hackman & Oldham, 1976; Rahman & Nurullah, 2014 Weaver, 2006). Later on, this model has been modified into multimethod job design questionnaire (MJDQ), and finally extends to work design questionnaire (WDQ) because many researchers viewed that job characteristics model has no longer enough to represent job (Campion & Thayer, 1985; Chiou, Wen & Liao, 2008; Johns, Xie & Fang, 1992; Morgeson & Humphery, 2006). According to this reason, people thought that job characteristics model is only an extension of work design questionnaire. From this point of view, this study uses work design questionnaire to conduct the research in order to get a better understanding of work conditions in Thailand as a whole. Summing it up, this study applies work design in order to get a better understanding relationship of work on person-job fit, job satisfaction and job performance of Thais and Taiwanese. By doing so, it can also give a better understanding of both countries’ differences in cultures and practices.. 1.2 Comparison between Thais and Taiwanese In recent years, there has been more and more trade between both countries. As a matter of fact, different countries have different kinds of culture. Thence, this study is more valuable to managers or workers, who are to trade or work in Thailand as well as in Taiwan, because the comparison of culture differences can let both countries’ managers and citizens get a better understanding of culture differences and be able to adapt with those differences. Basically, Thailand is located in the center of Southeast Asia, with an area of approximately 513,000 square kilometers. It ranked as 51st largest country in the world with a population of around 66 million people. Thai has been used as the official language. While Taiwan, or known as the Republic of China, is located in East Asia, with an area of approximately 36,193 square kilometers. It ranked as 137th largest country in the world. The Taiwanese population is around 23 million people. Taiwan’s official language is Mandarin. It is vital to note that different working environment exists in Thailand and Taiwan, mostly cause from culture, belief and norms. Thailand is well known as a Buddhist country. Even though people have freedom to choose their own belief, but most people still believe in Buddhism. Moreover, Thailand is also known as the land of smiles, which obviously indicated that people prefer to be happy. People would rather choose to quit a job if they do not like or feel satisfied with it. To add to it, most of Thais love to have freedom in their life, and this applies to work as well. They do not want to work under pressure or unreasonable rules and regulations. Besides, people often go to work late, but leave punctual. It is obvious that employees can 2.

(9) leave even if they did not finish their job. For over time working, most workers get a good pay from the company. Even though many companies are willing to pay for this, but people still want to leave punctually. Another important thing to consider is the holidays that the company provides because people prefer to have more holidays rather than working day. In accordance with Thai law, it forces company to at least provide 13 more days as a holiday, excluding weekends. Furthermore, people live with today, they prefer to be happy today, and do not think much about what will happen in the future. Last but not least, people expect to be rewarded when they have done something that benefits their company. On the contrary, in Taiwan, 93% of Taiwanese people believe in BuddhistTaoist religion, 4.5% of Taiwanese people believe in Christianity, and the rest believe in other religions. Taiwan’s culture is mixed up of Chinese, Japanese, and Taiwanese aboriginal culture. Moreover, Taiwanese are always afraid of what will happen, even though it does not exist yet. Although it is already time to get off work, but most people are afraid to leave punctually. Hence, most people are working over time. In Taiwan, people have high levels of job stress. They prefer to finish their everyday task before leaving the office. Some of them even go to work on weekends in order to get their task done rather than enjoying the weekend with their family. To sum it up, the researcher uses Geert Hofstede’s study to represent on culture differences issue. Geert Hofstede is a famous person who studies on how workplace influence by culture. He is the founder of comparative intercultural research. In his study, he divides culture differences into 6 dimensions, which are power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long term orientation and indulgence. From his study, it showed that the main difference between Thais and Taiwanese is long term orientation. He concluded that Thais are normative, while Taiwanese are pragmatic. Thais are concerned more with absolute truth, save only little for future, and focus more on a quick achievement. However, Taiwanese are good at adaptability, save and invest for future, preserve in achieving results and concern with virtue. Recently, Chiou, Wen and Liao (2008) had conducted a work design questionnaire in Taiwan with a total of 540 samples from different kinds of jobs and work positions in Taiwan and the research was very insightful. In addition, the researcher had compared Taiwanese data with Thai data by using the Taiwanese data that had been collected before by Chiou (2009), Chiou, Ou and Chou (in press) and Chiou, Wen and Liao (2008) to compare with Thai data that the researcher collected in this study. By comparing between Thailand and Taiwan, it would be able to measure on an accurate of this research. And this research can exert a better understanding for both countries’ managers and citizens about the culture differences that have significant impact on different working conditions.. !. 3.

(10) 1.3 Reasons for Conducting Research Why this study want to explore the relationship between work design, P-J fit and work outcomes? Is it because of rationalism or something else? To answer this question, the researcher has listed important reasons for conducting this study into the following points: First of all, the researcher thought that it is more helpful if we could understand Thailand’s and Taiwan’s culture differences. Nowadays the world is more open; people can work and travel wherever they want. Thence, the researcher believes that culture is an important thing that everyone should realize. By conducting this research, it gives both countries’ citizens better understanding of the differences in practices and also give more chance for both countries’ citizens to be able to adapt while having to work in other countries. This research also gives both countries’ citizens a consideration of moving to work in other countries where the working environment can totally fulfill their needs. From managers’ perspective, this research also gave manager an idea that culture differences can impact on job. Therefore, it is important for manager to keep in mind that they have to adapt their strategy with culture differences. Secondly, this issue of work design and person-job fit is not popular in Thailand. Hence, this study want to exert a better understand of work design and P-J fit to Thai people. Furthermore, the researcher hopes that this study can guide other researchers to conduct further research on this field in Thailand. Particularly, this study would apply work design questionnaire of Morgeson’s and Humphery’s (2006) to measure work characteristics. Fundamentally, the work design questionnaire had originated in the US and it was successfully conducted in other countries; such as Germany, Poland, Spain, Taiwan, Dutch, France, Indonesia, Italy, Portugal, Russia, etc. The result of the researches was the successful assessment of work design and work nature. Therefore, by using work design, researcher believes that it can also enable us to understand work outcomes of Thai people too. Last but not the least, this research has been conducted because not many researchers have conducted research about job satisfaction in a full length of different industries in Thailand. Mostly researchers just conduct the job satisfaction research within a specific organization, but not the view of a whole industry. Therefore, this study wants to examine on how different kinds of jobs, work characteristic, etc. can impact on job satisfaction and job performance for Thais as well as Taiwanese. In conclusion, reasons for conducting this research are listed above.. 1.4 Research Purpose and Methodology The main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between work design, person-job fit, job satisfaction and job performance in Thailand in order to understand Thais’ working conditions. To add to it, this study also compares Thailand’s data with Taiwan’s data, in order to understand differences between two countries and also leads to an improvement on cross culture work relations. 4.

(11) In order to complete this study, first, the researcher translates the English version of work design questionnaire that was created by Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) into Thai version in order to ask Thai people to fill up this questionnaire. After that, the researcher asks people who are an expert in English and Thai to do a back translation, edits until the Thai version and English version have the same meaning. What’s more, the researcher also translates Chinese questions of P-J fit, job satisfaction and job performance created by Chiou, Wen and Liao (2008) into Thai in order to collect the same data as Taiwanese sample. Secondly, the researcher has conducted pilot studies by asking 35 people with different kinds of skills, knowledge and job positions, to do the questionnaire in order to make sure that the questionnaire is able to understand by everyone. Furthermore, a formal study is conducted by asking 220 participants to fill up this questionnaire. However, there are only 204 valid samples. After that, the researcher uses confirmatory factor analysis to check the validity of WDQ. Third, the researcher conducts basic analysis on the research variables for Thais; which is the effect of independent variables on dependent variable. Then, the researcher runs a statistic analysis and analyzes sample data in order to check whether or not the hypothesis is supported in terms of mediation effects. Particularly, this research also compares Thais’ sample result with Taiwan’s sample result in order to understand how nationality can effect on work outcomes of two countries, which is very important for an organization. For Taiwanese data, the researcher uses data from previous study of Chiou (2009), Chiou, Ou and Chou (in press) and Chiou, Wen and Liao (2008) in order to compare with Thai data.. !. 5.

(12) Chapter 2 Literature Review In this chapter, the following subjects are introduced: First of all, this chapter covers the definition and concept of work design, personality-job fit and work outcomes. Secondly, this chapter also discusses about Thai culture and compares the differences between Thai and Taiwanese culture. Finally, this chapter analyzes about the hypothesis that using in this research.. 2.1 Concepts of Work Design The study of work design has a long history. It is not only be able to use the word ‘work design’, but can also use the word ‘job design, work characteristics, job characteristics, job demands and job content’ because all these words were viewed to be related to the terms of job design or work design (Morgeson & Campion, 2003). “Job design is the process of putting together a range of tasks, duties and responsibilities to create a composite for individuals to undertake in their work and to regard as their own. It is crucial: not only is it the basis of individual satisfaction and achievement at work, it is necessary to get the job done efficiently, economically, reliably and safely” (Torrington, Hall, Taylor, & Atikinson, 2011: page 84). Job design refers to the way of combining different small tasks together in order to complete a job (Robbins & Coulter, 2006). It pays more attention on job details in which can effect on people mind and motivation (Campion, 1988). Opatha (2002) thought that job design is to arrange work duty that gets from organization into action. Each work design has its own consequence, in which one consequence can effect on another (Campion & Thayer, 1985). However, Truss (2012) argued that job design idea does not gain much attention from employers and policymakers. Work design has a great impact on organization as it effect on the outcome; such as, efficiency and satisfaction (Deming, 1986; Jaran & Gryna, 1988; Waldman, 1994). Work design factor does not only come from inside an organization, but can also be factor that comes from outside an organization (Herzberg, 1966). Ali and Aroosiya (2010) quoted that job design has a great impact on performance of employee in an organization. According to the feature of job, job design should focus on job enlargement and job engagement (Ford 1969; Herzberg 1966), or motivation of job characteristics (Griffin, 1982; Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Hackman & Oldham,1980). Later on, human resource research came up with more theoretical and practical of job design research (Lepak & Snell, 1999). Delery and Shaw (2001) and Tsui, Pearce, Porter and Tripoli (1997) thought that the policies of HR should be differ according to each organization. And it would be best if each organization have 6.

(13) a great team of human resource because they can divide different kinds of jobs to employee by knowing which people specialized in doing which jobs. In order to understand job design impact, Zareen, Razzag and Mujtaba (2013) thought that it is important to understand four main ideas, which are, first of all, to understand job design’s role to get most productive outcome. Secondly is to understand root of job design. Third is to sort out benefit of job design. Finally is to analyze the relation between job design and performance of employee. Job design is a series of tasks that worker has to finish within a given time (Griffin, 1987). Work design is to go beyond employee needs in order to reach personal’s goal (Jackson, 2004). However, Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) thought that the word ‘job design’ only cover a narrow range. Therefore, they viewed that it would be more suitable to use the word ‘work design’ as work refers a broader characteristics, which included every aspects need in job.. Figure 1: Expanded work design model Source: Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang (2007, page 1334) Summing it up, Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) thought that work design should focus on four important characteristics, which are task characteristics, knowledge characteristics, social characteristics and contextual characteristics. The researcher thought that these four characteristics are best-described work design, therefore this study uses these characteristics to be the main characteristics in describing work design. Moreover, MPS is mainly concerning with job, which can show the prominence of job. Thence, this research would discuss more about MPS. !. 7.

(14) 2.1.1 Dimensions of Task Characteristics Task is one of the features that have been included in every kinds of work. Task characteristics are one of the tools used to understand motivation of work design. It mainly concerned with job and how to complete the job (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Hackman and Lawler (1971) had done a research about job characteristics reaction, in which result indicated that it has positive relation with motivation, satisfaction, performance and absenteeism. Hackman and Oldham (1976) told that autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance and feedback from the job could make people feel more satisfy with their job. Fried and Ferris (1987) also found a strong support that job satisfaction is influenced from these characteristics. Therefore, this research would include these five characteristics in order to understand work design. Autonomy. Autonomy has an origin from two Greek words, in which “autos” mean self and “nomos” mean law. Therefore, after combining these two words became autonomos, which means having law by itself. Later on, this word was changed to be autonomia. And in the early 17th century, autonomia was changed again to be autonomy as we use today. Autonomy is the most important thing in describing work design (Campion, 1988; Hackman & Oldham 1976). Waymer (1995) thought that autonomy is used to operate activity with freedom of using method, schedule and criteria. Autonomy is known as giving employee freedom to schedule work by themselves (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). Recently, autonomy is viewed as giving freedom and independence in using their way to complete work (Breaugh, 1985; Wall, Jackson, & Davids, 1992; Wall, Jackson & Mullarkey, 1995). Employee can make decision on job about what and how to do by themselves (Truss et al, 2013). Autonomy can be viewed as giving freedom in ‘work scheduling autonomy, decisionmaking autonomy and work methods autonomy’ (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Work scheduling autonomy means the freedom of scheduling task by himself or herself. Decision-making autonomy means the freedom of making decision by himself or herself. Work method autonomy means the freedom to choose method to complete the task by himself or herself. Task Variety. It is also known as skill variety. Task variety means work that requires employee to perform many tasks to complete the work (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). By using task variety, it would give a chance for employee to grow by getting new experience (Herzberg, 1968). It is concerning with an enjoyment of performing a numerable of tasks (Sims, Szilagzi & Keller, 1976). Fruitfulness of work is mainly derived from task variety (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007). Task Significance. This refers to an impact on others, not only towards people in organization, but also outside organization (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). As if employee knows how meaningful this work can impact on others, they would rather choose to try their best on their work (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). The work would. 8.

(15) give employee a greater experience, if it were involved with physical or psychological impact on others (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Task Identity. This refers to one requirement of job that has to complete the whole set of task, in which carried an end-to-end responsibility (Truss et al, 2013). Task identity required to complete the whole work job that has an obvious result since the beginning till the end; such as, completing service or product, which can be view as more interesting than just doing only some particular thing apart from all jobs that has to be done (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Task identity is to complete whole work and can be easily identify the result of work (Sims, Szilagyi, & Keller, 1976). Feedback From Job. Feedback is information that can get directly after performing job (Truss et al, 2013). While finishing some job, it would also obtain a clear feedback about your performance on that particular job (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). It is mainly focus on result of performance in which a particular activity gives, not from other people. The feedback is provided by the job that has been performed by each person (Hackman & Oldham, 1980).. 2.1.2 Dimensions of Knowledge Characteristics Knowledge characteristics refers to individual who has to use knowledge, skill and ability in order to complete job (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Campion and McClelland (1993) argued that knowledge is more important than task because it is more useful in enhancing activities. Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) thought that job complexity, information processing, problem solving, skill variety, and specification should be involved with demands of work knowledge. Job Complexity. This means the difficulty of performing a job, which is opposed to task simplicity (Campion, 1988). Job complexity refers to more demanding of skill in order to complete a complexity task (Edwards, Skully & Brtek, 2000). Job complexity has to use high-level of skills. Even though, job complexity can lead to job satisfaction, but with promoting too much on job complexity can also get a bad result instead of good result as an outcome (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007). Information Processing. This concerns with paying attention, monitoring or arranging on a concerning information (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007). Previous researches quoted that more or less information to be monitored should depend on the different level of jobs (Martin & Wall, 1989; Wall & Jackson, 1995; Wall, Jackson & Mullarkey, 1995). Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) supported that in the progress of getting job done, the higher level of job would require much more information than lower level of job. The higher demand of information needs indicated the more difficult that a particular job has (Campion, 1989). Problem Solving. It refers to an idea of solving problem (Jackson, Wall, Martin & Davids, 1993; Wall & Jackson, 1995). Problem solving is an idea or a way to get problem or error correct (Wall, Corbett, Clegg, Jackson & Martin, 1990). Problem solving is mainly concerns with getting a particular concept of solution in !. 9.

(16) order to solve problem (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007). This is mainly refers to find the best solution for solving error or problem that is facing in order to get job done. Skill Variety. It refers to the one who has to use different kinds of skill to get the job done (Truss et al, 2013). Skill variety involved with using different kind of skills and talents people have in order to complete their work. By doing this, it considered to be a valuable experience for individual who has to deal with such challenging tasks, in which he or she has to use all skills that he or she has to complete the task (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) viewed that it is challenging for dealing with a job that has to use varieties of skills. Specification. This required people who really understand the situation and also specialize in performing tasks (Campion, 1988). Morgeson and Campion (2002) quoted that specification in work design would lead to get job satisfaction. Specification is concerning with a deep understanding of particular stuffs (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). By using a clear understanding, specification can lead to a greater job result (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007).. 2.1.3 Dimensions of Social Characteristics Social characteristics mean the interaction with inside and outside an organization. This refers to your status in society. Previous studies had focused on the environment of society in this kind of research (Trist & Bamfort, 1951; Turner & Lawrence, 1965). Parker and Wall (2001) supported that social characteristics is very important for job. But this field does not really gain much attention from researchers (Morgeson & Campion, 2003). Hackman and Lawler (1971) thought this is mainly concerned with people and friends. Stress on job can be reduced by social characteristics (Karasek, 1979; Karasek, Triantis, & Chaudhy, 1982). And social characteristics could make people be more willing to work (Adler & Kwon, 2002). However, Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) thought that social characteristics should include social support, independence, interaction outside organization and feedback from others, which have been used to identify in this study. As social support was viewed as one tool to make people get job satisfaction. Social Support. Social support means helps or advises that get from others; such as, manager or colleague (Karasek, 1979; Karasek, Brisson, Kawakami, Houtoman, Bongers, & Amick, 1998). It can empower and reduce stress (Laker & Cohen, 2000). Social support can make people have a greater well-being and less unhealthy effect (Autonucci & Jackson, 1987; Schwarzer & Leppin, 1991). Later on, this idea got a support by Ryan and Deci (2001), and Wrzeniewski, Dutton and Debebe (2003). Somehow social support does not only come from people in organization, but also from outside an organization that they interact with. Independence. This refers to job that has to rely on others or others have to rely on your job (Kiggundu, 1981). Independence means jobs that are related between works of one another (Morgeson, Humphrey, & Nahrgang, 2007). Morgeson and 10.

(17) Humphrey (2006) thought that independence should be divided in two types, which are initiate independence and received independence. Initiate independence means that job has to finish before the rest of the job can be finished, while received independence means other jobs has to finish before this job start. Interaction Outside Organization. This word is also known as ‘dealing with others’ (Sims, Szilagyi, & Keller, 1976). It has to work with others closely in order to get task done (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). Interaction outside organization means making a contact with other people outside an organization (Morgeson, Humphrey, & Nahrgang, 2007). It is one of the requirements of job to contact with the outsider by using such kinds of communication (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). By interacting with others outside organization, he or she would gain more knowledge and experience by doing so. Feedback From Others. It is the feedback that employee can receive from their manager or colleague about what he or she has been done (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). This kind of feedback comes from people inside the company, which is more related to personal feedback (Morgeson, Humphrey, & Nahrgang, 2007). Hackman and Lawler (1971) thought that feedback comes from people in the place where he or she works.. 2.1.4 Dimensions of Work Context It is including a broad viewed of I/O psychology and management (Morgeson & Campion, 2003). Work context is mainly concerned with physical and environmental demand in work place (Campion & Thayer, 1985). This includes ergonomics, physical demands, work conditions and equipment use (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Truss et al (2013) supported that whenever the work has to be made, these features should be taken into consideration because work context can also effect on work outcomes. Ergonomics. It concerned with an appropriate posture in performing job (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007). It is an important factor towards work design (Campion & Thayer, 1985; Edwards, Skully, & Brtek, 1999). In working place, ergonomics are concerned with a suitable lighting, desk, chair, lifting, etc. Physical Demands. It is a physical need in performing a job (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007). Physical demands are mainly concerned with endurance, strength and others involving in doing a particular activity (Edwards, Skully, & Brtek, 2000; Stone & Gueutal, 1985). Physical demands involved with common posture, required posture or even a posture in critical situation1 Work Conditions. This is concerned with job environment (Morgeson, Humphrey & Nahrgang, 2007). Work condition is the setting of working stuffs where it took place (Truss et al, 2013). For work conditions, it is related to health (Stone & Gueutal, 1985), atmosphere, noise and free from dirt (Campion & McClelland, 1991; !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Source: Performing a physical demands analysis (2009) IAPA 11 !.

(18) Edwards, Skully, & Brtek, 1999). Saari and Judge (2004) thought that work conditions could impact on job satisfaction. Equipment Use. Work equipment is every tools that worker use while working.2 It refers to lots of tools that have been used in order to get the job done (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). Although there is not much attention on equipment use, but Goodman (1986) and Harvey, Friedman, Hakel and Cornelius (1988) do mention about this.. 2.1.5 Definition of Motivating Potential Score (MPS) Motivating potential score was invented by Hackman and Oldham (1975). It is used as the way to calculate job characteristic model or JCM. Basically, motivating potential score is a score used to measure the degree of high skill variety, task identity or task significance, and/or high autonomy, and/or high feedback (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). The formula is calculated by using five dimensions, which are skill variety plus task identity plus task significance divided by 3, after that multiply by autonomy and multiply with feedback. When computing MPS, if there is a near-zero score of autonomy or feedback, the MPS score would reduce to near-zero. However, if there is any increase in core dimensions, the total score of MPS also increase. But if task variety, task identity or task significance is near-zero score, it means that particular dimension is not meaningful in this place (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). The MPS was used in many researches around the world (Hinton & Biderman, 1995; Johns, 1978; Millette & Gange, 2008; Oldham & Cummings, 1996; Orpen, 1979; Zaccaro & Stone, 1988). Therefore, MPS became an important ideal of study. Traditionally, the research of work design is based from job diagnostic survey (JDS) of Hackman and Oldham (1980), which included task variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback from job, these are dimensions that used to calculate MPS. Campion and Thayer (1985) had used job diagnostic survey to expand into multimethod job design questionnaire (MJDQ), which had been used in other researches; such as, in Johns, Xie and Fang (1992). By the mean time, multimethod job design questionnaire has been expanded into more details; therefore, using job diagnostic survey to test on the job design is not enough. Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) has expanded the idea of job design into work design questionnaire (WDQ), which has been used in this study.. 2.2 Concepts of Person-Job Fit (P-J Fit) Person-job fit theory is related to personal issue, whether feel fit with job that has been assign to or not (Careless, 2005). P-J fit is to match knowledge, skills and !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2 Source: www.hse.gov.uk 12.

(19) abilities of people in organization with demand or need of job (Edwards, 1991; Lawrence, 2004; O’Reilly, Chatman & Caldwell, 1991; Sekiguchi & Huber, 2011). Recent study quoted that the person-job fit and person-organization fit can impact on organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) (Farzaneh, Farashah & Kazemi, 2014). For instance, Li and Huang (2010) found that person-job fit is highly correlated with job performance. While, Ilyas (2013) research supported that personjob fit is related to job satisfaction. P-J fit is the involvement of matching person with requirements associated with a specific work (Newton & Jimmieson, 2009). Schneider (1987) thought individual is seeking for situation that they feel interest in, while organization seems to be one situation that attracts people and makes them select and remain or leave an organization. Arora (2000) defined person-job fit as the matching between ability, expectation and performance of worker with demand and expectation towards job. It would be better if company could find individual who has the same requirements as a particular job need. Individuals would demonstrate positive behavior, if they feel fit positive towards work environment (Farzaneh, Farashah & Kazemi, 2014). Caldwell and O’Reilly (1990) thought that person-job fit can be refer to individual performance and work adjustment. Edwards (1991) assumed that personjob (P-J) fit concerned with organizational behavior (OB) and industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology. Person-job fit is to process the demand of job by using job analysis (Sekiguchi, 2004). Chang, Chi and Chuang (2010) categorized P-J fit into three types of fit, which are perceived fit, subjective fit and objective fit. While Cable and DeRue (2002), Edwards (1991) and Kritof-Brown et al. (2005) divided P-J fit into two types; which are demand-abilities and need-supplies. Demand-abilities (D-A) refer to job demands that require individual to complete task. Job demands involved with knowledge, skills and ability (KSAs) that has to use in order to complete job (Caldwell & O’Reilly, 1990; Wilk & Sackett, 1996). Need-supplies (N-A) refer to employee need of rewards that company provides for working on job. Sekiguchi (2004) thought that it includes goals, needs or interests of employee. Later on this two parts were viewed as the overall concept of P-J fit (Cable & DeRue, 2002; Vogel & Feldman, 2009). Kristof-Brown et al. (2005) thought that person-job fit could be explained by using a complementary fit concept. Previous research quoted that person-job fit refers to employee selection (Werbel & Gilliland, 1999). Self-selection and employee selection procedure can influence on person-job fit (Sekiguchi, 2004). With P-J fit, it match employees want and receive from job, therefore, it leads to job satisfaction, adjustment, organizational commitment and less intention to quit job. If follower has fit perception towards job, they tend to fit more with organization (Chi & Pan, 2012). If employee does not have person-job fit, he or she would not perform well on job and would lead to stress in job (Arora, 2000). P-J fit would be easier for employee to make choice (Werbel & Gulliland, 1999). Recent research supported that with !. 13.

(20) person-job fit, people would perform jobs effectively by engaging with mission and vision of organization (Hamid & Yahya, 2011). In conclusion, P-J fit is mainly concerned with individual and job of individual that has to use knowledge, skills and abilities to carry out a job, while a particular job may effect on organizational outcomes.. 2.3 Concepts of Work Outcomes In this research, the researcher wants to emphasize on two kinds of work outcomes, which are job satisfaction and job performance.. 2.3.1 Concepts of Job Satisfaction Earlier research, there are innumerable studies taking about job satisfaction. The word ‘job satisfaction’ can be defined differently according to different people’ ways and thought. However, job satisfaction can effect on an individual performance (Dugguh & Dennis, 2014). Job satisfaction is one of factors to maximize organization goal (Butler & Rose, 2011). Job satisfaction is a feeling of gratefulness by doing something or experiencing something, but would dissatisfy while getting block from doing or experiencing it (Locke, 1976). People would get this kind of feeling while performing job (Cranny, Smith, & Stone, 1992; Locke, 1969). Brief (1998) thought that job satisfaction refers to the job’s attitude. While, Smith, Kendall and Hulin (1969) quoted that job satisfaction means emotions respond toward particular circumstance. Moods can also influence on job (Judge & Larsen, 2001). Nicholas and Daus (1999) thought job satisfaction could get an effect from mood and beliefs. While later research of Weiss (2002) also supported that job satisfaction is mood or emotion, which is a react towards job. Remayah, Jantan and Tadisina (2001) explained that it is concerning with the willingness to work or perform assign work. Job satisfaction is what one expects and wants it to be real (Lund, 2003), which reflects the expectation in job (Medina, 2012). It is a feeling toward actual result, which is same or different with imagine result (Egan, Yang & Bartlett, 2004). Job satisfaction is known as one of the most important factors that company should have in order to make employee perform their task efficiently (Butler & Rose, 2011). Dugguh and Dennis (2014) supported that job satisfaction is one tool to let employee more wiling to work and try their best in performing job. Well-being of people’s lives can be influenced by job satisfaction (Smith, 2007). Research resulted also supported that the happiness percentage would increase when low social standing changed to high social standing. Job satisfaction is also the feeling towards work, salary, coworker, promoting and manager (Waymer, 1995). Dugguh and Dennis (2014) thought that job satisfaction could be effect by individual, environment and psychology. However, it is 14.

(21) complicated because it is not only came from personnel characteristics, but also change according to the situation. Job satisfaction is the feeling of fit between individual and organization that gets from conducting different kinds of jobs (Spector, 1997). Judge and Klinder (2008) supported that job satisfaction is connected with people lives and organization. Herberg (2003) quoted that there are different factors that lead to job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction. Hussami (2008) thought that job satisfaction or dissatisfaction is depending on individual expectation on job to be assigned. A positive attitude towards job would lead to job satisfaction, on the contrary negative attitude towards job would lead to job dissatisfaction (Armstrong, 2003) Ellickson and Logsdon (2002) thought that it means how much employee loves their job. Kumari and Pandey (2011) defined job satisfaction as a pleasant feeling, reaction or mood toward job. With job satisfaction, it could reduce conflict in an organization (Moser, 1997). Kose (1985) found that age could also effect on job satisfaction. Older workers would have higher job satisfaction (Davis, 1988). Dugguh and Dennis (2014) thought that communication is the most important factor to get job satisfaction, which could influence job satisfaction in positive or negative way. Hulin and Judge (2003) also supported that it is related to psychological respond towards job. Saari and Judge (2004) thought that job satisfaction could lead to job performance and life satisfaction, while dissatisfaction could lead to withdrawal behaviors. Previous studies indicated that one reason that make people quit their job is concerning with job satisfaction issue (Egan, Yang & Bartlett, 2004; Lambert, Hogan & Barton, 2001; MacIntosh & Doherty, 2010; Scherpker, 2001; Silverthorne, 2004). Therefore, without job satisfaction, employee would rather choose to find a new job (Alexander, Litchtenstein & Hellmann, 1998; Jamal, 1997; Medina, 2012). Both job satisfaction and dissatisfaction could happen in any kind of works, and it could have an influence on an organization; such as productivity, loyalty, absenteeism, etc. (Aziri, 2011). Abid, Sarwan, Imran, Jabbar and Hannan (2013) supported that satisfaction leads to positive thought, on the contrary, dissatisfaction lead to negative thought on job. Velnampy (2008) told that positive impact lead to higher performance, which make people feel more satisfy and loyal. Parvin and Kabir (2011) quoted that job satisfaction is concerning with individual, and it was effected by some factors; such as, benefit, promotion, fairness, working conditions, social relationship, work itself, challenge, etc. They also thought that by enhancing job satisfaction and performance could get influence from job design. Luthan (1998) viewed job satisfaction in three aspects; which are, first of all, an emotion that has towards job circumstance. Secondly is how well result meet expectation. Third is relevant attitude towards job satisfaction. There are many factors that could lead to impact of job satisfaction. Individual, environmental and psychological factors have an impact on job satisfaction (Dugguh & Dennis, 2014). Individual factor is personality, feeling, etc. (Cote & Morgan, 2002). !. 15.

(22) Environmental factor is communication, recognition, etc. (Krayer & Westbrook, 1986; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Psychological factor is life, family, community, etc. Smith, Kendall and Hulin (1969) thought that pay, promotions, coworkers, supervisor and work are five factors that could effect on job satisfaction. Weir (1976), and Syptak, Marsland and Ulmer (1999) thought that job satisfaction came from achievement, recognition, work, responsibility and opportunity or promotion. However, Herzberg (2003) thought that salary, supervision, working conditions, policies, interpersonal relationships, status and security are main reasons that lead to job dissatisfaction. Christen, lyer and Soberman (2006) thought that job satisfaction included job related factors role perceptions, job performance and firm performance. Aziri (2011) thought that work, compensation, chance, team member, working environment and work management could influence job satisfaction. Medina (2012) viewed that there are demographic characteristic and organizational culture could impact on job satisfaction. And job satisfaction can also link with employee turnover intention. Hackman and Oldham (1976) thought that job satisfaction mainly effect from autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance and feedback from the job. However, Abid, Sarwan, Imran, Jabbar & Hannan (2013), Deming (1986), Jaran & Gryna (1988), Mohr & Zoghi (2008), Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) and Waldman (1994) thought that job satisfaction is related to work design.. 2.3.1.1 The Theories of Job Satisfaction There are numerable theory that is concerning with job satisfaction theory. However, below are important theories that concerns about job satisfaction.. 2.3.1.1.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory According to the theory of Maslow (1954), human needs can be divided into five stages, which are physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs and self-actualizations. First is ‘physiological needs’, which is basic needs for people to survive; such as, need of food, water and shelter. Secondly is ‘safety needs’, which is a feeling of no harm. Thirdly is ‘belongingness and love needs’, which refers to relationship with people; such as family, friend, classmate, teacher, etc. (Martin and Loomis, 2007). Forth is ‘esteem needs’ which refers to need of self-esteem and self-respect. Fifth is self-actualization, which is the hardest need to success. Self-actualization is to become what one thought he or she should be (Maslow, 1954). From this theory, job satisfaction is one of needs that people would like to fulfill (Kuhlen, 1963; Worf, 1970).. 16.

(23) 2.3.1.1.2 Two Factor Theory Herberg’s two-factor theory of job satisfaction was launched in 1959. This theory of job satisfaction is also known as Motivator – Hygiene Theory. It concerned with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The two-factor theory can be divided into two factors, which are hygiene and motivation factor (Herberg et al., 1959). Hygiene factor can be seen as pay, physical demand, policy, benefit, security, etc. While, motivation factor can be seen as job, responsibility, achievement, etc. Herzberg and his colleagues thought that satisfaction and dissatisfaction could not use the same measurement (Stello, 2011). Herberg et al. (1959) viewed the opposite of satisfaction as no satisfaction, while viewed the opposite of dissatisfaction as no dissatisfaction. This theory showed that attitude could influence on performance on job. And the best way to increase satisfaction is to improve motivation (Herberg et al., 1959).. 2.3.1.1.3 ERG Theory ERG theory was further developed from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs by Clayton Paul Aldefer in 1969, which refers to existence, relatedness and growth. Existence concerned with physiological needs and safety needs, which is basic need of Maslow’s hierarchy. Relatedness concerned with belongingness and love needs and esteem needs, which is psychological needs of Maslow’s hierarchy. Growth concerned with self-actualization, which is self-fulfillment needs of Maslow’s hierarchy (Aldefer, 1969). However, ERG theory has some different from Maslow’s theory. First of all, ERG theory suggested that need does not have to go step by step as describe in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, but people can have one more need at a time in order to be a motivation to move on. Secondly, ERG theory also suggested that different people would have different order of needs according to the different situation that they face. Finally is ‘frustration-regression’ principle. Although people have not reach the higher level of needs, they can also go back to lower level because it is easier to be satisfied.3. 2.3.1.2 Relation of Job Satisfaction and Work Design Recent researches found that job design impact on performance of employee (Ali & Aroosiya, 2010). Ali and Rehman (2014) indicated that many human resources supported that job design has an impact on job satisfaction. Hackman and Lawler (1976) quoted that autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance and feedback from the job are core of willingness to put their best effort on work. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3 Source: www.abahe.co.uk !. 17.

(24) Work design emphasize on extrinsic and intrinsic factors in order to get job satisfaction (Herzberg, 1966). Love and Edwards (2005) thought that job design concurs work demands, work control and social support, in which leads to great result outcome. Knapp and Mujtaba (2010) thought that job design could increase satisfaction, motivation and productivity in job. Zareen, Razzaq and Mujtaba (2013) thought that job design could increase effectiveness in job, if they do not satisfy with job design they will not be wiling to reach organization targets. However, results of job design indicated that psychologically no one would satisfy with job at all time. Job design is viewed as one important factor in company, it makes employee understanding in about their work that comes with skills variety, independence and feedback (Hodgetts & Heger, 2005). Alam Sageer (2012) thought that job design could impact on job satisfaction. Later on, Abid, Sarwan, Imran, Jabbar and Hannan (2013) have conduct research about job satisfaction, which has an effect from job design. They thought that job design is concerning with variety of tasks or position, while job satisfaction is concerning with work, salary, management, freedom, teamwork, working environment, leader, opportunity, etc. Result supported the theory that job design and job satisfaction are positively related to each other. In conclusion, this study thought that work design can effect on job satisfaction, which is the main idea of this research.. 2.3.2 Concepts of Job Performance Up to now, there is a wide spread use of ‘Job performance’. Job performance refers to how well employee performs their job, which is one of the most important issues for an organization. Job performance is based on how employees perform their job to accomplish the same goal as an organization (Devoudi & Allahyari, 2013). Ali and Rehman (2014) indicated that many human resources supported that job design has an impact on job performance. Campbell, McHenry and Wise (1990) thought that job performance is related to the goal of an organization. Job performance is a result of productivity in the workplace (Hunter & Hunter, 1984). Performance of individual is highly related to organization and individual (Sonnentag, Volmer & Spychala, 2008). Performance is known as individual’s action or ability (Salleh, Dzulkifli, Wan Abdullah & Yaakob, 2011). Sonnentag and Frese (2002) thought that performance is a combination of behavior and outcome. Job performance can be viewed in three dimensions, which are function of outcomes, functions of behavior and function of personal traits (Milkovich & Wigdor, 1991). For concept of performance, researchers agreed that concept of performance is used to differentiate action and outcome aspect (Campbell, 1990; Campell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sager, 1993; Kanfer, 1990, Roe, 1999; Sonnentag & Frese, 2002; Sonnentag, Volmer & Spychala, 2008). For action aspect, it was also known as 18.

(25) behavioral aspect, which refers to an action that people take while working. However, for outcome aspect, it refers to individual behavior’s result or consequence. Campbell, McCloy, Oppler and Sager (1993) proposed that performance must come from an effectiveness and productivity. Campbell (1999) thought that ability, personality and interest could effect on job performance. Job performance includes specific behavior that performs in an organization (Sonnentag, Volmer & Spychala, 2008). Salleh, Dzulkifli, Wan Abdullah and Yaakob (2011) thought that motivation, aptitudes, skill level could influence on job performance. Campbell, McCloy, Oppler and Sager (1993) thought that job performance was used to explain goal-oriented behavior. The outcome is known as a result of individual’s behavior (Sonnentag, Volmer & Spychala, 2008). An effective job performance required an action in which maintaining or being consistent with organization policies, procedures and conditions (Boyatzis, 1982). Good performance could be defined as an achievement of quality, quantity, cooperation, dependability and creativity. And one with high motivation would lead to success (Salleh, Dzulkifli, Wan Abdullah & Yaakob, 2011). Opportunity would provide to those who perform well in their job (Van Scotter, Motowidlo & Cross, 2000). Individual does well perform in job, would get promote, award and honor (Sonnentag, Volmer & Spychala, 2008). To meet goal, organization needs every employees to perform well in their job, to deliver a maximum quality of products and services and also to compete with competitive.. 2.4 Comparison of Culture Differences Culture can be different for different countries. Culture is a combination of values, perceptions, beliefs and behaviors that can be affected by family, relatives and others in the same environment.. 2.4.1 Brief Introduction to Thailand Thailand is located in the center of Southeast Asia, with approximately 513,000 square kilometers as the total area. It ranked as 51st largest country in the world. Thai population is around 66 million people. And people use Thai as an official language. In 2014, the Department of Provincial Administration and National Statistical Office and National Economic & Social Development Board research showed that Thailand has 65.12 million people as population, in which 38.58 millions of those are in workforce level. 38.08 millions of people are employed, 12.73 millions of people are working in agricultural sector, while 25.34 millions are working in nonagricultural sector.4 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4 Source: Bank of Thailand !. 19.

(26) Thailand is known as a Buddhist country, even though people can choose their own belief, but most Thais believe in Buddhism. Figures showed that 94.57% of Thai people believe in Buddhists. However, there are 4.65% of Muslims, 0.72% of Christians, 0.05% of Hindus, Sikhs and others, and 0.01% of unidentified religion.5 This can be supported by thousands of structures, pagodas and temples that can be seen from every corner of Thailand. From the Department of Religious Affairs in the year 2001, it recorded that there are 32,710 Thai Buddhist monasteries, 267,818 Thai Buddhist monks and 103,026 Thai Buddhist navies. Thais are friendly, and have a relaxed attitude according to Buddhist teaching.5 As Thailand is well known as the land of smiles. Lots of foreigners from different countries around the world would want to pay a visit to Thailand once in their life. Thailand captured a good image of tourism (Kontogeorgopoulos, 1998). “Amazing Thailand” is well known to the world as a tourism slogan of Thailand. Cohen (1996) viewed that even though Thailand is a third world country, but it has one of the most developed tourism industries. In 2013, travel and tourism directly contributed 1,074 billion baht, which was 9.0% of the GDP. The travel and tourism industry generated 2,563,000 jobs directly in 2013.6 It was shown that 88.6% (1,718.9 billion baht) came for leisure purpose, while 11.4% (221.9 billion baht) came for business purpose. In the year 2013, Thailand globally ranked fourteenth place in term of US dollars for travel and tourism’s direct contribution to GDP, seventeenth place in term of US dollars for travel and tourism’s total contribution to GDP, seventh place in term of jobs for travel and tourism’ direct contribution to employment and seventh place in term of jobs for travel and tourism’ total contribution to employment. From January till December of 2014, tourism receipts from international tourist arrivals statistic showed that the grand total of tourisms, who paid a visit to Thailand, are 17,932,662.7 From recent news, Thailand still ranks in one of the best countries to visit in 2015. As we can see from this, it was supported that as a friendly and land of smile make people willing to come to Thailand and contribute to Thailand’s economic growth. Thailand also has lots of holiday throughout a year, which employee can enjoy while they are working. Even if holiday were on Saturday or Sunday, the next day would be adjusted to holiday. Thailand national holidays are the followings: first of all, New Year is an international holiday, which is on 1st January of every year. Second, Makha Bucha day is to celebrate the Buddha’s first sermon, this day is a full moon day of the 3rd lunar month. Third, Chakri Day is to commemorate the founding of the Chakri dynasty, which is on 6th April of every year. Forth, Songkran festival is known as Thai New year festival, which is on 13th till 15th April of every year. Fifth, Labor Day is an international holiday, which is on 1st May of every year. Sixth, Coronation Day is to celebrate the day that King Rama IX succeeded the throne, which is on 5th May of every year. Seventh, Royal Ploughing Ceremony is a !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5 Source: Buddhism in Thailand 6 Source: Travel & tourism: Economic Impact 2014. World. 7 Source: Department of Tourism 20.