Research Findings - 創意與觀光: 巴塞隆納經驗之個案探究

4-1. C

ULTUR AL

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OLIC Y FOR THE

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AKING OF

B

ARCELONA 4-1-1. Strategic Cultural Planning in Barcelona

As the second largest city in Spain, as well as being the capital city of Catalonia, Barcelona has a delicate discourse in its political situation. An autonomic region that seeks for worldwide recognition rather than representing itself as a subordinate cultural and political entity while facing Spanish central administration. The identity of being a

‘Catalan’ is also a critical factor that enhances local participation and networking (Poblenou d'Actualitat, 2014). Therefore, this helps to improve urban revitalisation and culture tourism in the city (Calavita & Ferrer, 2000). After the fall of Franco regime in 1975, Barcelona’s strong Catalan cultural identity and desired freedom of self-expression have led the city transform thoroughly. It has set ‘model’ for the world’s cities to follow; some may argue that ‘experiences’ could be more appropriate (Casellas, 2003; El Periódico, 2014; Marshall, 1996; Mascarell, 2008). Regardless of this debate, Barcelona’s urban policy, tourism policy, and cultural policy do have shaped its attractive urban landscape and an image of a world top destination.

The success of the 1992 Olympic Games left Barcelona with many iconic buildings, waterfront development, public space redesign, and cityscape transformation.

According to the local media, many of the changes have turned Barcelona into a popular destination. Barcelona viewed the end of the Games 1992 as a step into a new milestone in its urban policy and tourism planning (Smith, 2007). When the whole world was still remembering Barcelona for its renovated cityscape and glorious architecture from TV broadcasts of the Games, the government seized this opportunity and establish Turisme de Barcelona –a consortium which spearheaded tourism marketing in an international level (Turisme de Barcelona, 2012). Proliferation of literature discussing and debating the cultural, urban, and tourism policy of Barcelona was also initiated during that period (Barber & Eastaway, 2010; Casellas, 2003;

González, 2011; Jauhiainen, 1995).

The interrelationship between culture and space is a socio-spatial phenomenon and can be empowered by culture-led urban regeneration (Gómez, 1998). Barcelona has better potential to undertake a series of urban regeneration itself for holding various cultural resources and heritages. The government of Barcelona has also adopted different approaches in urban regeneration, adapting the three most common approaches, which are event-led regeneration, cultural infrastructure, and cultural clustering and cultural and creative quarters (22@Barcelona, 2012; Ajutament de Barcelona, 2008;

Turisme Pla 2015, 2008). In addition, the revitalisation of public spaces in Barcelona is commonly considered to be able to improve a small-scale community or neighbourhood identity and living quality (Puentes, 2011).

The Barcelona City Council has adapted a various way to regenerate its urban landscape and shape itself as a tourism destination (Ajutament de Barcelona, 2013a).

Three major phases are commonly recognised among academic and policy research.

The following table 5 indicates the role of culture in different phases of policy and governance.

Table 5. Phases of Urban Transformation in Barcelona since 1979 Source: Degen and García (2012, p. 1025) and own elaboration

Role of Culture Governance Inclusivity/ Redistribution Phase

Consensus Provision of civic centres and libraries

Full participation of every stakeholder and involvement of community

4-1-2. Approaches in Barcelona

Barcelona has a long urban development history dating back to the end of 18th century, when Europe entered the age of modernity. As the second largest city in Spain, Barcelona has also competed with other major European cities to hold mega-events, such as The 1888 Universal Exhibition and the 1929 International Exhibition; in the abovementioned events, some significant monuments and iconic infrastructures were built to exhibit the cultural and economic capital that Barcelona possessed at the time,

e.g. Arc de Triomf; Monument a Colom, Plaça d’Espanya, Poble Espanyol, etc. These

iconic buildings and monuments have later become popular tourist destinations (Subiros, 1999). Later on, Barcelona governmental authority has adopted different way to revitalise different barrio (neighbourhood) and community. The initial step that the government has taken is to ensure the sustainability in communities by face-lifting the public spaces. Public spaces were revitalised to provide local residents a public and cultural space to socialise with others and build a collective identity, such as Parc de la

Ciutadella and El Raval (Richards, 2013a).

While renewing facilities, some old iconic buildings and existing elements in the

barrio would remain to remind local residents about their collective identity while

reshaping and reimaging for a new vision. In the old town of the city, Plaza Real was once an old parking space in the 1960s; however, urban policy had transformed it with simple design and now Plaza Real has become the area that young people, artists, tourists gather (Rius Ulldemolins, 2014).

Art and culture are used in the process of creating public spaces as catalysts for empowering the local community and for making the ‘qualitative transformation’ of the city (Blanco, 2009). The Department of Urban Planning in Barcelona indicated that if government firstly refurbished public areas, local residents in neighbourhoods would follow up and improve their own living quality. This unique way of urban policy

gradually forged the collective ideology of the city, transformed it to a better place to live in, and reshaped the image of the city. They prepared to wait for a moment to showcase their outcomes to the world- the Olympic Games in the coming of 1992.

The 1992 Olympic Games pinned Barcelona on the map of attractive global destinations. This mega-event of sports has been a perfect excuse, for city governors, to undertake an in-depth city transformation. Four marginal areas were successfully revitalised and opened for public use. Moreover, both residents and tourists reported they appreciate the waterfront development of the Olympic Village and the harbour

(Port Vell) due to its extensive accessibility to the beaches (Garcia-Ramón & Albet,

2000). The city marketing of Barcelona during the Games also enhanced the international profile of the city in addition to intensifying the identity in the minds of the residents. For instance, in a governmental promotion on urban spaces, it has been illustrated that publicity campaigns and official strategies resulting a narcissistic relationship between Barcelona and its inhabitants. As Sánchez (2002) displayed a few examples as:

‘…those launched by the City Council with the slogans ‘Barcelona ficat guapa’ (Barcelona, make yourself pretty), ‘Historia d’amor entre una ciutat i l’olipisme.’ (The love story of a city and the Olympics), or ‘Barcelona la passió, i tu’ (Barcelona, passion, and you), encouraging a persona and collective perception of the city as a seductress or an enticing object of desire. ’

Furthermore, the social and economic capital that accumulated before the game resonated with the careful planning and created a new metropolitan Barcelona with coherence, credibility, and integration (Minnaert, 2012).

After the Games, the city of Barcelona launched another event ‘the 2004 Universal Forum of Cultures’ with the support of the UNESCO. However, this event was considered, after a long-term observation, generating an unfavourable result (García, 2004a). Later on, Barcelona opened to another concept of utilizing cultural clustering to redevelop an old town area ‘El Raval’ in a small-scale regeneration. Since the

government intervened in staging traditional festivals and organising religious celebrations, the sense of belonging and togetherness in those grass-roots activities could be maintained as a quintessential element to ensure the likelihood of success in cultural-led urban regeneration (Battaglia & Tremblay, 2011b)

Figure 7. Area Regeneration in the Games 1992.

Source: Turisme de Barcelona (2012)

With the previous experience in the Olympic Games, Barcelona was ambitious enough to try to reach another peak to lead Barcelona from a post-industrial context to nowadays knowledge and information city (Garcia-Ramón & Albet, 2000). A large real estate and infrastructure operation in the Poblenou area had often been criticised for a lack of clear definition and credibility in its mission statement and lack of concern for local needs (García 2004a). However, after receiving critical opinions and suggestions,

local authority started to remedy the loss by reusing the space for other purposes and making it more accessible and appreciated by city dwellers.

Combing cultural planning and tourism policy, Barcelona demonstrates a holistic approach to governance, partnership, and economic development. Its cultural events and infrastructure are important elements for the local economy, and themes such as creativity and innovation are often mobilised (Turisme Pla 2015, 2008).

Turisme de Barcelona was a consortium that aims to promote Barcelona tourism built after the successful Olympic Games in 1992. In the last two decades, it has successfully branded Barcelona as the world top destination (Turisme de Barcelona, 2014). The economic impact of tourism has led Barcelona to experience a dramatic rise after the 1992 (Ajutament de Barcelona, 2013a). Turisme de Barcelona has contributed mostly to the success of branding Barcelona as top destination. Over the years, the deliberate planning and positioning is constantly changing according to the concurrent social change in its urban context. Table.6 displays the positioning and strategies adopted in Barcelona. More detailed discussion and debates on the strategic planning will be divided into three categories as: spectacles, spaces, and tourism in the following sections.

Table 6. Barcelona’s Long-Term City Positioning and Strategy Source: (Turisme de Barcelona, 2012, 2013d)

Coordinate and reorganise tourism resources

1994 Long-term tourism development plan 1994-2003

Segmentation of tourists and activities;

improve city’s hardware by building infrastructure

2002 International Gaudí Year Culture and arts; using art and culture to decorate the city

2004 International Dalí Year Culture and arts; positioning Barcelona as a destination for art aficionado

2004 Universal Forum of Cultures New invented mega-event

2005 International Gastronomic Year New segmentation of tourism: Catalan food and wine

2005- 2010

Steady tourism growth, specific target markets, new products and

Planning and new strategy with the focus on alternative tourism trend

2011 Destination Barcelona Reshaping Barcelona’s image as multi-faced destination

2011 Barcelona World Mobile Congress

Enhance Barcelona’s technology, innovation, and creativity

2012 Biosphere Certification: 1^st Biosphere World Class Destination

Shape Barcelona as a sustainable destination

-Providing platforms and alliance for local small industries become one of the fastest-growing industries which has brought enormous social change and economic growth (Turisme de Barcelona, 2014).

Since establishment, Turisme de Barcelona has played a crucial role and achieved remarkably in the promotion of tourism. The Mayor of Barcelona in 1992, Pasqual Maragall i Mira, contributed to the reorganisation of tourism policy and also urban regeneration. The General Council of Turisme de Barcelona was chaired by the mayor of Barcelona and Executive Committee of Turisme de Barcelona consortium was led by the president of the Chamber of Commerce (Ajutament de Barcelona, 2013a).

Turisme de Barcelona receives resources and economic support from two

participating institutions: the Municipal Council and the Chamber of Commerce.

According to an official statement, the operational budget is not only reliant on contributions from the abovementioned organisations. 93% of the budget comes directly from the generation of its own resources by Turisme de Barcelona. The Municipal Council and the Chamber of Commerce altogether subsidise the rest 7% for the tourism projects and marketing (Turisme de Barcelona, 2013b).

4-2-2. 2004 UNESCO Creative Cities Network

In 2004, Following the guidelines of The UN Global Alliance for Cultural Diversity, UNESCO has initiated the Creative Cities Network program. It recognises the member cities as ‘creative hubs’ and ‘socio-cultural clusters.’ UNESCO defines Creative Cities Network as ‘a network for creative cities, working together towards a common mission for cultural diversity and sustainable urban development’ (Creative Cities Network, 2006). Cities of member states of the UN can bid for the title of

‘creative city’ and apply to participate in the network. According to the Creative Cities Network (2008), member cities will be:

Promoting local collaboration for global impact, connecting cities’

efforts to needs on-the-ground, engaging local agents in international development, and creating new tourism opportunities.

According to abovementioned objectives from UNESCO Creative Cities Network, it is easy to see that the network is eager to develop new tourism opportunities in order to connect the global and local agents in various industries. Hence, the collaboration of tourism sector and local creative industries are promoted under this circumstances.

Observing from its official website, the Creative Cities Network was developed in the Culture Sector of UNESCO and under the theme of ‘creativity.’(UNESCO) Candidate cities which endeavour to win the title of ‘Creative City’ can choose one of seven categories- City of Literature, City of Music, City of Design, City of Gastronomy, City of Cinema, City of Crafts and Folk Art, and City of Media Arts. All subthemes are related to the development of creative industries in bidding cities. Examined from these genres, it is implied that cities which collaborate with their creative industries are viewed as ‘creative cities’ from the UNESCO’s perspective (Creative Cities Network, 2006).

This new trend displays how cities are eager to foster the creation of more innovative cultural assets than cultural heritage and museums. Most significantly is that UNESCO Creative Cities Network also endorses ‘creative tourism’, as it illustrated:

‘… the Creative Cities Network is facilitating the formation of new links and innovations in a city’s cultural offerings, taking the

tourist’s experience to a new level of ‘creative tourism’ (Creative Cities Network, 2008)

Recognizing the importance of creative tourism endorsed by UNESCO program, it has spurred the development of creative tourism and this project has widen the influence on many other cities around the world, such literature, cinema, music, design, crafts and folk art, media arts and gastronomy. After the first creative tourism program launched in New Zealand, another world-leading creative tourism program emerged in Barcelona (Raymond, 2003).

4-2-3. 2006 Barcelona Turisme Creatiu (Barcelona Creative Tourism)

Barcelona City Government (Ajuntament de Barcelona) seeks creative tourists who are not passive consumers but can be more involved in the place that they are visiting.

Its objective is to stimulate the involvement of creative tourists can generate positive feedback for local artists or hosts. Barcelona Turisme Creatiu was founded with the support of Barcelona City Government.

It is a pioneer project of Fundació Societat i Cultura (Society and Cultural Foundation), known as FUSIC. With the support provided by Turisme de Barcelona, major consortium of tourism in the city, FUSIC has been promoting art and culture for Barcelona society for more than 30 years. The foundation holds rich human and cultural capital and is well imbedded in the city’s artistic life.

Originally, Barcelona Turisme Creatiu offers tailor-made tourism experiences for tourists willing to discover Barcelona creatively. However, judging from highly frequent key words ‘experiences’ and ‘culture’, this position is very close to what another official tourism organisation (Turisme de Barcelona) promotes. In later years,

Barcelona Turisme Creatiu has diversified its ‘creative tourism initiatives’ (Turisme de

Barcelona, 2012, 2013a, 2013c, 2013d).

4-2-4. 2010 International Creative Tourism Network® (2010)

The Creative Tourism Network® is an international network which promotes the development of authentic and creative tourism experiences for cities which want to become a destination of creative tourism. This project was found in the year of 2010

under the guidance of the FUSIC Foundation, the same foundation created Barcelona

Turisme Creatiu in 2006. Same group of experts and practitioners from Barcelona has

initiated both national level- Barcelona Turisme Creatiu and international level – The Creative Tourism Network® in order to network among potential creative tourists and cities which want to be creative tourism destinations. The members of the network are including: Creative Tourism Austria, Creative Paris, Creative Tourism Galicia,

Barcelona Turisme Creatiu, Destination LOUVRE-LENS, ROMA, Biot Tourisme Créatif, Creative Tourism Thailand, Guatemala Ruta Textil Maya, Creative Tourism

Ibiza, Sant Felu de Guíxols…etc (Creative Tourism Network, 2010).

4-2-5. From Theory to Practice

It is difficult to avoid seeing the word ‘creativity’ in governmental reports nowadays (Creative Cities Network, 2006, 2008; Pyykkönen, 2012). With the growth of debates on the creative economy and knowledge networking in a globalised context, an emphasis on ‘creativity’ has become a focal point of urban and cultural policy. Creative

‘gurus’ such as Richard Florida and Charles Landry have developed a set of indexes for creative cities and also a toolkit for other cities to adapt and follow certain steps to become the next rising creative star (Florida, 2002; Landry, 2002). UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network also states that the essential core value of the building of its network lays in the concept of ‘Creative Economy’ and ‘Creative Industries’ (Creative Cities Network, 2006). To this day, the definition of ‘creativity’ and even ‘creative industries’

remains very debatable in different countries.

In the last decade, indeed, we have seen many cities adapt several models from others and aim at attracting the ‘creative class’ to drive their economy and create a creative milieu. These ideas are now penetrating into tourism. Creativity is treated as the most important element for a better tourism experience in cities and also it is being considered as one potential solution to alleviate negative impacts such as commodification of cultures and serial reproduction elsewhere (Richards, 2009a, 2012a, 2013c).

The overflow of ‘creative-related’ debates has permeated into cities, events, social classes, governance, planning, marketing, people, occupations, urban design, the

economy, CCI and tourism. It is easy to see many studies trying to demonstrate the interrelationship among all these fields. Supranational organisations such as UNESCO and the European Commission have also joined this trend and set their missions towards creativity, diversity, and innovation. For example, UNESCO has initiated the Creative Cities Network program according to the guidelines of UNESCO’s Global Alliance for Cultural Diversity in 2004. It has recognised its member cities as ‘creative hubs’ and

‘socio-cultural clusters.’ The UNESCO Creative Cities Network has affirmed on its website that:

‘…once a city is appointed to the Network, it can share experiences and create new opportunities with other cities on a global platform, notably for activities based on the notions of creative economy and creative tourism.’

It is obvious to find that UNESCO Creative Cities Network is a key impetus for the making of Creative Tourism Network® . Since Richards and Raymond (2002) had coined the term ‘creative tourism’, the first program was born under this concept in Creative Tourism New Zealand in 2003. The program promotes the Moai culture, traditional handicraft workshops, and art classes for potential tourists (Raymond, 2003).

Linking the cultural assets of local creative sectors to the tourism industry, Creative Tourism New Zealand has tried to combine this new academic concept the theory into practice. After gaining international recognition from UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network in 2004, the network has expanded too many other cities and regions, such as Barcelona, Santa Fe, Paris, Portugal, Guatemala, Austria, Thailand, and Galícia (Wurzburger et al., 2010).

In Figure 8., historical timeline of the development of International Creative Tourism Network® is illustrated. After the first creativity-led tourism project was launched in New Zealand, similar projects organised by UNESCO had also spurred the birth of Barcelona Turisme Creatiu in 2006, a program launched by the FUSIC Cultural Foundation, which is supported by the Barcelona City Council. After four years of promotion and implementation, the FUSIC Cultural Foundation gathered resources from its previous experience running Creative Tourism Network® in Barcelona and

87 Barcelona, aims at connecting cities that want to position themselves as creative tourism destinations from around the world. This has reflected that the growing trend to sell intangible tourism resources such as image, identity, lifestyles, creativity and atmosphere instead of built heritage, musuems, beaches, and monuments to boost the growth of tourism industry. (Richards & Wilson, 2006b)

Figure 8. Historical Timeline of Development of Creative Tourism Network®

Instead of searching three individual examples from three different cities to examine the framework of creative tourism, the case of Barcelona has three typical examples to best illustrate the development of creative tourism. According to Richards (2012a, 2012b, 2013a), the creative events and creative places can lay fundamental base for

Creative Events

1994: Sónar Festival Creative Places 2000: @22 Plan, Poblenou District

Creative Tourism 2006: Barcelona Turisme Creatiu 2010: International Creative Tourism Network

creative tourism to be well developed; however, events are easier to be staged than places. Creative tourism emphasised a proactive participation of tourists themsevles, this can be accelerated by well-organised creative events and creative places. Although creative events, creative places, and creative tourism are being viewed as three individual catogories, Richards and Wilson (2006a) has argued that an intergration

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