創意與觀光: 巴塞隆納經驗之個案探究

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(1)歐洲文化與觀光研究所. 國立. 國立臺灣師範大學國際與僑教學院歐洲文化與觀光研究所. 臺灣. 碩士論文. 師範大學. Graduate Institute of European Cultures and Tourism College of International Studies and Education for Oversea Chinese National Taiwan Normal University. 文碩士論. 創意與觀光：巴塞隆納經驗之個案探究涂雅喬撰. Master Thesis. 創意與觀光: 巴塞隆納經驗之個案探究 Creativity and Tourism: The Experience of Barcelona. 涂雅喬 Tu, Ya-Chiao 指導教授﹕劉以德博士 Thesis Advisor: Dr. Liu, Yi-De. 103. 6. 中華民國 103 年 6 月 June 2014 0.

(2) Creativity and Tourism: Case Study on the Experience of Creative Tourism in Barcelona. A Master Thesis Presented to Graduate Institute of European Cultures and Tourism National Taiwan Normal University. In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts. Tu, Ya-Chiao. Thesis Advisor: Dr. Liu, Yi-De Reader: Dr. Chung, Hsiao-Ling Dr. Tsaur, Sheng-Hshiung. 26th, May 2014. 1.

(3) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Dr. Yi-De Liu for the continuous support of my MA study and research, for his patience, motivation, and encouragement. His guidance has helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my MA study. Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the rest of my thesis committee: Dr. Sheng-Hshiung Tsaur and Dr. Hsiao-Ling Chung, for their valuable advices, insightful comments, and challenging questions. My sincere thanks also goes to Dr. Dinu Luca, Dr. Luisa Chang, Dr. Ted Partington, Dr. Mary Goodwin, Dr. Chung-Chiang Hsiao, Dr. Hsueh-I Chen, Dr. ChiaLing Lai in NTU and NTNU, for offering me great opportunities in analytical thinking and leading me to analyse questions from different perspectives. I thank all my friends and classmates who have encouraged me through the writing of this thesis. I also like to thank my fellow backpackers in Barcelona for exploring this amazing city with me. I sincerely thank my superior at work, School Principal of Gong-Liao Elementary School, Mr. Cheng-Sheng Chen for his understanding of my hardship working and studying at the same time. Also, I thank my brothers and sisters in Life Tree Church, for their prayers and spiritual support. I thank God for all the lessons learned during the research and writing process. I would like to thank my family: my parents Chao Mu Tu and Hsi-Chen Huang, my sisters Linda, Jesse, Tina, and Chi-Fang, for being my strongest support in all aspects. Lastly, my husband, Yau-Ching Huang, it is to whom I dedicate this work. I thank him for his unconditional love and his bravery to move to London with me for further PhD study. May God continue to bless us.. 2.

(4) TABLE OF CONTENT List of Figures ........................................................................................................... 6 List of Tables ............................................................................................................ 7 Abstract ..................................................................................................................... 8 中文摘要 .................................................................................................................. 9 1.. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 10 1-1. Research Background ................................................................................... 11 1-2. Research Aims and Objectives ...................................................................... 14 1-3. Chapter Outline ............................................................................................ 17. 2.. Literature Review ............................................................................................ 19. 2-1. Background Study of Barcelona: Spaces, Events, Tourism, and Urban Planning .................................................................................................................. 20 2-2. Tourism Development in Urban Regeneration Context ................................. 24 2-3. New Trajectories in Urban Regeneration and Tourism .................................. 26 2-3-1. Culture’s Role in Urban Regeneration .................................................... 26 2-3-2. Culture, Spill-Over Effect for All Kinds of Regeneration? ..................... 27 2-3-3. Urban Regeneration for Creative Industries and Tourism ....................... 28 2-4. Conceptualising ‘creativity’ .......................................................................... 30 2-4-1. New Discourse: From Culture to Creativity ............................................ 30 2-4-3. Defining Creativity ................................................................................ 32 2-4-4. Key Approaches: Creativity in Cities Vs. Creativity in Tourism ............. 35 2-5 Creative Events.............................................................................................. 39 2-5-1. Creative Industries Strategies in the Building of Creative Events ........... 39 2-5-2. Events for the Transformation of Cities .................................................. 41 2-5-3. Festivals and Creative Production .......................................................... 43 2-6. Creative Places ............................................................................................. 46 3.

(5) 2-6-1. From Culture-Led to Creativity-led Space Revitalisation........................ 46 2-6-2. Creative Cities Approach in Building Creative Places ............................ 48 2-6-3. Creative Spaces in Tourism Discourse ................................................... 51 2-6-4. Multi- Ethnicity as Creativity in Places .................................................. 52 2-6-5. Clustering for Creative Spaces ............................................................... 53 2-7 Creative tourism ............................................................................................ 57 2-7-1. The Rise of Creative Tourism ................................................................ 57 2-7-2. Co-creation Tourism Experience ............................................................ 59 2-7-3. Defining ‘Creative Tourism’ .................................................................. 59 2-7-4. Creative Tourism and its Socio-cultural Role ......................................... 61 3. Research Methods ............................................................................................... 63 3-1. Research Design ........................................................................................... 65 3-2. Data Analysis and Resources ........................................................................ 67 3-3. Data Collection ............................................................................................. 69 3-4. Validity and Reliability ................................................................................. 73 3-4-1. Construct Validity .................................................................................. 73 3-4-2. Internal Validity ..................................................................................... 73 3-4-3. External Validity .................................................................................... 73 3-4-4. Reliability .............................................................................................. 74 4. Research Findings ............................................................................................... 75 4-1. Cultural Policy for the Making of Barcelona ................................................. 75 4-1-1. Strategic Cultural Planning in Barcelona ................................................ 75 4-1-2. Approaches in Barcelona ....................................................................... 77 4-2. Building the Network for Creative Tourism in Barcelona .............................. 82 4-2-1. 1993 Turisme de Barcelona.................................................................... 82 4-2-2. 2004 UNESCO Creative Cities Network ................................................ 83 4-2-3. 2006 Barcelona Turisme Creatiu (Barcelona Creative Tourism) ............ 84 4.

(6) 4-2-4. 2010 International Creative Tourism Network® (2010).......................... 84 4-2-5. From Theory to Practice ......................................................................... 85 4-3. Creative Events in Barcelona ........................................................................ 89 4-3-1. Creative Events in Barcelona: Policy, Practices, and Implementation ..... 89 4-3-2. The Sónar Festival: Creative Events with Creative Industries Strategy ... 94 4-4. Creative Places in Barcelona ....................................................................... 103 4-4-1. Creative Places in Barcelona: Policy, Practices, and Implementation .... 103 4-4-2. The @22 Plan and Creative Clusters in Poblenou ................................. 112 4-5. Creative Tourism in Barcelona .................................................................... 122 4-5-1. Creative Tourism: Policy, Practices, and Implementation ..................... 122 4-5-2. Creative Workshops in Barcelona ........................................................ 129 5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 136 5-1. Summary .................................................................................................... 136 5-2. Theoretical Implication ............................................................................... 140 5-3. Managerial Implication ............................................................................... 146 5-4. Limitation and Future Research .................................................................. 149 References ............................................................................................................. 152. 5.

(7) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Framework of Research Objectives ............................................... 16 Figure 2. Catalan Context of Cultural Policy in Barcelona ........................... 21 Figure 3. The Evolvement of Three Elements in Creative Tourism Development........................................................................................ 34 Figure 4. Shift from Tangible to Intangible Tourism Resources ................... 58 Figure 5. Qualitative Analysis as a Circular Process..................................... 67 Figure 6. Data Collection Resources ............................................................ 69 Figure 7. Area Regeneration in the Games 1992. ......................................... 79 Figure 8. Historical Timeline of Development of Creative Tourism Network® ............................................................................................................ 87 Figure 9. Selected Cases in the Development of Creative Tourism in Barcelona ............................................................................................. 88 Figure 10 Evolution of Creating Spectacles in Barcelona ............................. 92 Figure 11. Transformation of Barcelona into a ‘Creative Destination’ .......... 95 Figure 12. 3D Shows and Creating Spectacles For Audiences ...................... 95 Figure 13. Festival-goers in Sónar by Night ................................................. 96 Figure 14. Festival-goers in Sónar by Day ................................................... 96 Figure 15. SónarKids Web Campaign .......................................................... 99 Figure 16. Sónar on Tour 2014 ................................................................. 102 Figure 17. Map of Arts Factories in Barcelona ........................................... 118 Figure 18. Arts Factories in Poblenou ........................................................ 119 Figure 19. Interior of Arts Factories in Poblenou ....................................... 120. 6.

(8) LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Creative Content in the Three Elements ......................................... 35 Table 2. Evolvement of the Creative Tourism Theory and Key Elements Mirroring Existed Theory on Creativity in Cities ................................. 37 Table 3. From Cultural Branding to Creative Spaces .................................... 48 Table 4. Rationales for Cultural and Creative Industry Quarters. Evans (2009b) ............................................................................................................ 55 Table 5. Phases of Urban Transformation in Barcelona since 1979 ............. 76 Table 6. Barcelona’s Long-Term City Positioning and Strategy ................... 81 Table 7. Approaches of Creation of Spaces in Barcelona ........................... 108 Table 8. Categories of Creative Tourism Assets ......................................... 126 Table 9. Cultural and Creative Corms of Tourism in Barcelona ................. 138. 7.

(9) ABSTRACT Creativity is now in the centre of spotlight in urban policy for many cities around the world. The background of this study is to identify interdependences among urban regeneration and tourism in the city of Barcelona, followed by the debates of how creative tourism evolves from cultural tourism. The purpose of this study is to conceptualise creativity in an urban context and examine the trajectory of tourism industry’s focus shifting from culture to creativity. This study will probe into the creative tourism development and adopt a theoretical framework to observe the tourism industry and tourism policy in the city of Barcelona. With analysis of empirical evidences in Barcelona, data will be put under three categories: 1) creative events, 2) creative places, and 3) creative tourism to further examine and evaluate the creative tourism experiences in Barcelona. Associated with case study, this study is aimed at exploring evidences in abovementioned three dimensions of creative tourism. Along with creative industries strategy, creative city approach, and the creative class discourse, it will conceptualise and discover the intricate interrelationship among events, places, tourism, and creativity.. Keywords: Creative tourism; creativity; creative spaces; creative spectacles; cultural policy; Barcelona. 8.

(10) 中文摘要在現今全球各城市發展中，『創意』為許多都市政策的焦點。此研究背景在於巴塞隆納的都市更新與觀光相互依存的複雜關係，以及該城市從文化觀光中心論述轉變而來的新創意觀光模式。本研究的目的在於概念化城市中的創意元素以及探究市中的觀光焦點如何從文化觀光轉變為創意觀光。此研究旨在探究巴塞隆納的創意觀光發展，並採取理論性架構來檢視該城市的觀光產業以及觀光政策。依據巴塞隆納的實際例子，採集的資料將會被放進三個主要框架中檢視，即創意節慶、創意空間、以及創意觀光。本研究採取個案研究之方法，將巴賽隆納市的實例，依據上述三項主題逐一探究。研究同時也採用文化創意產業策略、創意城市策略、以及創意階級之論述，融入創意觀光之發展的討論，以期能開啟創意觀光中關於節慶、地方、觀光以及創意之間的關係。. 關鍵詞: 創意觀光、創意空間、創意奇觀、文化政策、巴塞隆納、文化觀光. 9.

(11) 1. INTRODUCTION In the context of globalization, the city is the convergence of multiple resources, such as creativity, innovation, and technology, etc. Cities are also in the spotlight in cultural governance within global milieu. The capital city of a country can easily attract talents to stay, contain more resources, and cluster creative industries together. The flow of immigrants as well as the world citizens are often traveling through cities and might also have temporary resident’s identities. Nowadays, ‘being creative’ has become one of the most frequent subject of discussion appearing in the urban cultural policy. Many recent theories are also focusing on the role of ‘creativity’ in urban policy and social development. This is the reflection of culture-led urban regeneration raised to the central attention of government agendas. These new social, cultural, and economic changes particularly occurred in big cities. Cities are themselves the cause and location where social changes develop. Cities around the world strive to maximise their competitiveness and attractiveness in a globalizing context. Besides, a rapid shift in recent years from traditional manufacturing towards service and innovation has transformed cities into urban playgrounds for ‘creativity’. However, this transition of focus on from ‘culture’ to ‘creativity’ has aroused various layers of debate and discussion.. 10.

(12) 1-1. R ESEARCH B ACKGROUND In the late 1970s, culture-led development first came to prominence; most western cities were struggling to deal with the reconstruction of the economy and society. A new economic structure has rendered service sectors to replace traditional professions; among all, culture and the arts were commonly applied to relieve post-war stress and reach for better social cohesion (Belfiore, 2002). As the role of culture was widely manifested in social and urban development, using culture as an instrument for regeneration has been the major policy in most developed cities and towns, especially in America and Europe, for the past three decades. In the context of urban regeneration, culture does not have to be confined to forms such as architecture and heritage attractions, festivals and events, entertainment and leisure complexes; culture can refer to everything as way of life. Accordingly, a great deal of literature has focused on the role and function of culture in an urban context concerning community empowerment (Deakin, 2011), local identity and destination image(McDonogh, 2010; Paddison, 1993; Resina, 2008; Smith, 2005), infrastructure and iconic-buildings(Bélanger, 2007), governance and leadership, (Bull & Jones, 2006; Elander, 2002; Marshall, 2000; Mclntyre & McKee, 2008) partnership and collaborations, (Cook, 2009; Elander, 2002) attractiveness and tourism development (Gezici & Kerimoglu, 2010; Russo & Van der Borg, 2008; Sepe & Trapani, 2010; Smith, 2007). Among others, Evans (2005) differentiates between three approaches to regeneration: ‘cultural regeneration’, where cultural activities are integrated into a wider planning and strategy; ‘culture-led regeneration’, where culture is used as a catalyst for further development; and ‘culture and regeneration’, where cultural activities play as a minor role and are interpreted as an ‘add-on’. Culture provides symbols; institutions such as museums, galleries and iconic architecture have capacity to do more than just increase land value but also stimulate investment and tourism industry. Zukin (1995) illustrates that the growth of culture-led urban regeneration had a connection to the symbolism that culture brings. Accordingly, Smith (2007) displays the connection between the growth of culture as a factor of development in general and its expanded role for culture in tourism. In addition, culture 11.

(13) is an essential factor for the (re)shaping image of cities, and differentiation of places. However, in this post-modern, globalised world, competition among cities is becoming increasingly fierce; cities strive to ensure cohesion while attracting inward investment and tourism. The application of culture for economic, social and urban development is highly variable with the intricacies of local configurations of power and the negotiation of policy agendas (Kanai & Ortega-Alcázar, 2009). In recent years, a paradigm shift from ‘culture’ to ‘creativity’ in an urban context has altered the social fabric and had a major influence on tourism. Many cities, in their planning strategies and regeneration development methods, have aimed to be ‘creative’ to cope with changeable climate of the globalised environment. A variety of academic debates and policymaking discussions on how to conceptualise creativity at different levels have emerged in the last two decades, such as the significance of ‘creative economy’ (Howkins, 2005), the rise of the ‘creative class’(Florida, 2002), the importance for cities to be on the ‘creative city’ list (Landry, 2000), embeddedness of ‘creative tourism’ in the urban context (Richards & Raymond, 2000), and the attention paid to the ‘creative industries’ (Hesmondhalgh & Pratt, 2005). According to , Tourism has been viewed as one of the largest and fastest growing industries in the world; it plays an important role in the process of shaping a destination image, illustrating a major rationale for the aesthetisation of landscapes, also altering the environment to meet the needs of consumers. Previous studies demonstrated that, for a majority of cities, using culture as a catalyst to reach urban regeneration is not only for local human ecology, but also to attract tourists and visitors (Gemmiti, 2008a; Gezici & Kerimoglu, 2010; Law, 1992; Russo & Van der Borg, 2008). Hence, tourism plays an important role in urban regeneration. Urban regeneration has shaped tourism, and tourism shapes urban regeneration vice versa. A positive outcome of a successful urban regeneration plan could lead to the development of tourism. Some post-industrial cities have clearly included tourism as part of the plan in urban regeneration, such as Glasgow, Liverpool, and Bilbao. Much research has suggested that it is likely that local residents hold different opinions about tourists receiving benefits from their own urban policy. Whereas, cities holding rich 12.

(14) cultural heritages and profound history such as Barcelona might not put tourists at the focal point in urban planning; however, those cities could receive positive outcomes by even more unexpected tourists. Tourism in the context of urban regeneration has its long historical development and it remains today as an intricate mechanism.. 13.

(15) 1-2. R ESEARCH A IMS. AND. O BJECTIVES. In view with the urban cultural strategy, ‘creativity’ has become the buzzword for most of the world cities regarding urban policy and urban development. From Landry’s Creative City to Florida’s Creative Class, from Howkins’ Creative Economy to Richards’ Creative Tourism, many contemporary theories are also focusing on the role of culture and creativity in urban planning and social development (Florida, 2002; Howkins, 2002; Landry, 2008; Richards, 2013b). The new discourse on ‘creativity’ is becoming prevalent in urban planning, aesthetisation of life, and empowerment of community. Many campaigns on urban policy and place marketing are shifting their focus from ‘culture’ to ‘creativity’. However, these rapid changes are having a significant impact on tourism sector. It is hard to ignore the impacts that tourism can bring to a city, to a place, and to different groups of people. The emerging debate on ‘creative tourism’ and the first international creative tourism network project were both initiated in the city of Barcelona. Hence, the background of this study is to identify interdependences among creativity and tourism in the city of Barcelona, there should be a review of how creative tourism evolves from cultural tourism in the city. Consequently, the purpose of this study is to conceptualise creativity in tourism within a specific urban context and examine the trajectory of tourism industry’s focus shifting from culture to creativity. This study aims to explore creative tourism in an urban context and further display the creative elements within this domain. By examining cultural and tourism policy, we hope to explore how cities interpret the new rising form of tourism industry- creative tourism. We have selected Barcelona to be the target of this study for its long history of urban cultural strategies. In addition, its previous regeneration implementations have led to an international focus on its physical transformation, tourism growth, socio-cultural impacts, and international profile. (Alcon, 2014; Balibrea, 2001a; Cid, 2002; Cucurella, 2005; Marshall, 2004; Sasaki, 2004) Barcelona has aroused many research interests due to its culture-led urban revitalisation experience and its prosperous tourism growth. This study hopes to explore Barcelona as a creative tourism destination and delineate the collaboration on 14.

(16) developming a creative tourism mechanism among the creative sector, the tourism sector, and the public sector in the city. Accordingly, the objectives for this study are: 1) to probe into the creative tourism phenomena in urban development; 2) to analyse culture policy and tourism policy following a historical timeline; 3) to reveal the practices from different approaches by examining empirical data in a theoretical framework; 4) to identify ‘creativity’ among events, places, and tourism with three examples. The ‘Barcelona Model’ has appeared in the academic debates for its success in urban renewal, since it has utilised multiple layers of regeneration in oscillating the dynamics in the city (González, 2011). In the literature review, we will first look into the evidences on the culture-led regeneration in a historical timeline to provide a background to the development of creative tourism. After a literature review, we will base on the framework of the development of creative tourism proposed by Richards and Wilson (2006, 2013) to examine the case of Barcelona. The case will be studied with multiple dimensions and to view issues from some different perspectives. This case study is using content analysis as approach to analyse documentation, official reports, journal articles, and web resources. Seeking to conceptualise our target content under its predetermined categories and in a systematic manner. Moreover, we will delineate Barcelona’s different strategies regarding creative tourism development and further open a discussion on various approaches applying to the city and its influence in a contemporary time. To illustrate, a framework of the research objectives is illustrated in Figure 1.. 15.

(17) Figure 1. Framework of Research Objectives. Creative Events • to probe into creative events in an urban context (coordinating with the creative industries strategies) • to identify creative elements in festivals, events, and cultural activities • to delineate the attractiveness of creative events for tourism purpose • to reveal the in-context experiences from different approaches by examining empirical data within a theoretical framework. Creative Places • to probe into the manifestation of creative places in an urban context (coordinating with creative city model and creative clusters) • to identify essential creative traits of spaces, localities, and environment • to delineate the attractiveness of creative places for tourism purpose • to reveal the practices and implementation from different approaches by examining empirical data in a theoretical framework. Creative Tourism • to probe into the creative tourism phenomena in an urban context • to analyse urban cultural strategy regarding creative tourism • to reveal the practices and implementation from different approaches • to identify the creative experiences between spaces, events, and people in tourism. 16.

(18) 1-3. C HAPTER O UTLINE In this study, elaborate discussion and juxtaposition of the cultural policy and practices regarding urban transformations and tourism development in Barcelona will firstly be illustrated. Then we will further examine theoretical framework of creativity applied into urban development to lead tourism in the city, from the small-scale designled ‘urban acupuncture’ to the later bigger scale waterfront and tourist area rejuvenation. Following, we will identify its tourism policy and practices within a historical timeline from the 1990s to the present, along with an examination of various formats and strategies applied in the city coordinating temporal-spatial attributes. After reviewing the city’s urban cultural strategies, we will discuss the trajectory from culture to creativity in tourism development. Then, a literature review will present a brief account of historical references in Barcelona’s policies and practices regarding urban evolution and tourism planning. This will provide a contextual background to explicit the complexities of Barcelona’s politics and urban planning history in relation to the shaping of itself as a top tourism destination nowadays. In the timeframe, the highlight will be placed after the 1992 Games, due to its fame of turning the mega-event as a vehicle to creating spectacles, doing space makeover, and boosting its image for tourism. To demonstrate, we will probe into the creative tourism phenomena and adopt a theoretical framework developed by Richards and Wilson (2006a. 2006b) and Richards (2013b) to delineate the tourism industry and creative tourism activities in the city of Barcelona. With analysis of empirical evidences in Barcelona, data will be put under three categories from Richard and Wilson’s suggestion: 1) creative events, 2) creative places, and 3) creative tourism to further examine and evaluate the implementations and policies regarding creative tourism in Barcelona. In particular, we will look into the urban policy, cultural strategies and tourism policy of Barcelona City Council (Ajutament de Barcelona), especially those supporting events, place making, and tourism development from Spain’s reconstruction 1979 up to now. However, the creative tourism discourse will focus on the timeline in the past decades, from 2000 to 2013. This research aims at exploring abovementioned three dimensions- creative 17.

(19) events, creative places, and creative tourism. These three themes will form the core theoretical framework of this study and help us to examine whether Barcelona has succeeded in shifting its position from a cultural tourism destination to a creative tourism destination.. 18.

(20) 2. LITERATURE REVIEW This Chapter focuses on the literature of creative events, creative places, and creative tourism in the urban context of Barcelona. In first section, as a base, we will look into the background study of spaces, events, tourism and urban planning in the city. Next, we will probe into the intricacy of tourism development and the urban regeneration in Barcelona due to its fame on the establishment of a ‘world model’ concerning these issues. In the third section, a detailed review on the shift from using culture to using creativity to develop cities will be displayed. In the fourth section, a debate on creativity will be illustrated. It aims to use other major contemporary theories concerning ‘creative industries strategies’. (DCMS,. 1998),. ‘creative. city. model’(Landry,. 2008),. ‘creative. clusters’(Evans, 2009b), ‘creative class’ (Florida, 2002) and ‘creative economy’ (Howkins, 2002) to underpin the conceptual framework raised by Richards and Wilson (Richards, 2013b; Richards & Wilson, 2006b; Richards & Wilson, 2007a). In the last three sections, three main themes- creative events, creative places, and creative tourism will be displayed along with a review on other critical theories regarding ‘creativity’ in cities and in tourism. Respectively, 2-5 focuses on the definition of ‘creative events’ and how ‘creative industries strategy’ collaborates with events in city marketing, area regeneration, and tourism boosting. 2-6 centres the debates regarding places and creativity, by adapting theories on creative cities and creative clusters. Finally, 2-7 discusses the new coined term ‘creative tourism’ with the debates on the ‘creative class’, ‘creative economy’ and the ‘experience economy’.. 19.

(21) 2-1. B ACKGROUND S T UDY OF B ARCELONA : S PACES , E VENTS , T OURISM , AND U RBAN P LANNING Due to its strategic location, Barcelona has traditionally been a bridge between Europe and the Mediterranean and has developed an open reputation for its cultural, social and commercial relationships with other nations (Garay & Cànoves, 2011). Barcelona offers its visitors and tourists an amazing yet multifaceted landscape; the city has been shaped during many periods of urban regeneration. Nogué and Vicente (2004) believe that landscape, as the result of a collective transformation of nature: … is the cultural translation of a society on a particular portion of nature, and this translation is not only material, but also spiritual, ideological and symbolic. (p113). Barcelona’s landscape acts as a centre of meaning and symbolism. It creates a sense of belonging and territorial identity for its citizens. Meanwhile, the perceptions of visitors towards city images are also directly reflected in the construction of cultural and natural landscape of the city (Smith, 2005). Situated on the northeast coast of the Iberian Peninsula, Barcelona is the capital of Catalonia (Catalunya), an autonomous community and the second largest city in Spain, after Madrid. There are approximately five million people in the Metropolitan Area; it is the largest metropolitan region in the Mediterranean Sea and ranked as the top tourist destination in the world (Reid, 2012). Barcelona’s urban triumph is a result of long-term urban planning and development by means of mega-events such as the 1992 Olympic Games, infrastructure-led urban regeneration, beautification of public space, and assistance for the growth of cultural and creative clusters (Balibrea, 2001b; Calavita & Ferrer, 2000; Garcia-Ramon, Ortiz, & Prats, 2004; Subiros, 1999). In the past two decades, Barcelona’s transformation to one of the most popular world destinations along with its urban revitalisation has been viewed as a successful urban development experience worth reflecting on and discussing in relation to other cities (Casellas, 2003). The Barcelona experience concerning urban development and culture-led regeneration can be viewed from a special historical and social context. In. 20.

(22) Figure 2, a historical timeline of the main cultural policies in Barcelona is illustrated to probe into the Catalan context of cultural strategies.. Figure 2. Catalan Context of Cultural Policy in Barcelona Source: Crespi‐Vallbona and Richards (2007). Dictactorship Regime (1939-1975) •Catalan language and culture heavily repressed. Restoration of democracy (1979) •Use of culture as an underpinning for Catalan identity •Consolidating the consumption of culture and strengthening international presence of Catalan creative cultural products. Following years •Infrastructure •Considerable numbers of public facilities •Historical and artistic heritage. 1996 Onwards •Public cultural expenditure •Increasing cultural spending rapidly •1999-2003 public sector cultural expenditure 40%. In the late phase of Franco’ dictatorship, industrialisation and urbanisation of the city came right after a gradual process of modernisation and democratisation in the late twentieth century (Balibrea, 2007). Along with long-term organised and elaborate urban planning, Barcelona had completed a ‘face-lifting’ process. Major physical change to the city has displayed its fresh new image to the world when the spotlight hit Barcelona during the Olympics in 1992 (Marshall, 2004). From then on, Barcelona’s successful beautification has continued to inspire more urban theorists, governments, policy makers, academic researchers, and architects to debate and to reflect (see Battaglia & 21.

(23) Tremblay, 2011a; Calavita & Ferrer, 2000; Casellas & Pallares-Barbera, 2009; Marshall, 2000; McNeill, 2003; Richards, 2007). Under these circumstances, this so-called ‘Barcelona Model’ of urban regeneration has received a great deal of attention (Balibrea, 2001a; Casellas, 2003; Garcia-Ramón & Albet, 2000; Marshall, 2000; Puentes, 2011; Zusman, 2004). The most significant feature of this model is the use of major events as catalysts for urban regeneration, urban governance based on the collaboration between different tiers, a high degree of public. participation,. and. political. and. administrative. decentralisation. and. autonomisation (Blanco, 2009). The success of urban revitalisation in Barcelona has been recognised as a result of good cultural governance and well-organised city branding (Parés, Bonet-Martí, & Martí-Costa, 2011). It has been pointed out that Barcelona intends to maintain the density of surrounding ring of decayed fringe as the city centre through ‘festivalisation’: promoting the city with periodic international events. Before the Olympic Games, Barcelona staged few events and projects on an international scale. (see Chalkley & Essex, 1999; Cid, 2002; Garcia-Ramón & Albet, 2000; Inglis, 2008; Pyo, Cook, & Howell, 1988) The city has equipped itself with both the hardware and software of its urban system. Barcelona had used the 1992 Game as a great channel for its own marketing in order to further foster its unique identity among its residents and reshape its image to the world (Resina, 2008; Smith, 2005). In the aspect of history of tourism in the city, it is evident that a strong connection between urban regeneration and tourism existed (González, 2011; Richards & Wilson, 2007a; Thomas & Long, 2001). Historically, the first time that Barcelona intended to promote its city as a touristic place and as a tool to enhance civic pride was when the city had a chance to stage the World Exposition. During that time, Barcelona’s modernisation had a chance to portray itself as a touristic location after the launch of 1888 World Exposition (Reid, 2012).. The city planners at that time managed to. recreate the city not just for its own residents but to juxtapose its evidence as a globally recognised city. Many places are regenerated to function better; it was also when the concept of opening public space for people to stroll, to meet, to interact, and to 22.

(24) exchange ideas started to flourish. After a century, the city is still implementing this original idea of combining culture and tourism development into an urban renewal policy (Russo & Van der Borg, 2008).. 23.

(25) 2-2. T OURISM D EVELOPMENT. IN. U RBAN R EGENERATION. C ONTEXT Cities are eager to adopt various strategies to enhance their image and become more competitive in a globalised context. In Europe, North America and Australia, in particular, urban policies have strongly connected urban planning with cultural planning in order to maximise the benefits, including economic, environmental, social, and cultural impacts (Belfiore, 2002). Whether these cities with successful experiences are revitalised through mega-events, flagship projects, cultural clusters, the design of public spaces, and creative industries, it is not difficult to observe that tourism is vital to the majority of these model cities (Richards & Wilson, 2006a). During the past three decades, a considerable amount of literature has been published on the role of culture in urban development, and more on how it has been applied to alter social structure. Culture is an essential contributor to urban regeneration or to policymaking; it highlights the uniqueness of a place and other positive impacts for the society (Balsas, 2004; Colomb, 2011; Gemmiti, 2008b; Gezici & Kerimoglu, 2010). These studies tend to justify the legitimate contribution of culture and how it is been integrated into policy. It is also revealed that it is not just culture acts as a catalyst in urban regeneration, but other factors such as governance, community participation, and networking also have played major roles in urbanity. There are more studies recently noting the importance of creative industries in current postmodern and globalisation society; however, a dilemma usually arises when one needs to strike a balance between socio-cultural impacts and economic impacts (Comunian et al. 2010a). Cultural tourism, for the past few decades, has been believed to be the best way to use culture and art to alleviate negative impacts the tourism could bring. On the other hand, it has led many cities, particularly in Europe, into fierce competition which can be seen as a challenge for social position being played out on a transnational level (Drake, 2003). They further argued that in some cases, arguably the case in the Glasgow ‘European Capital of Culture’ event in 1990, the development of cultural tourism could form a closed circuit; events and attractions became specially provided for the professional culture consumer by the professional culture producer and with little 24.

(26) attention paid to the major local population. However, Glasgow might have still enjoyed the fame that the 1990 ECOC brought to the city: such as a growth in wealth tourism, transformation of identity, a reshaping of its industrial image, and employment opportunities (García, 2005; Murphy & Boyle, 2005; Reason & Garcia, 2007). Since then, tourism discourse have been usually viewed as an important economic sector and also be included in the urban cultural strategy or cultural policy (Smith, 2007). On the contrary, little attention has been paid to the interrelationship between tourism and other creative sectors; tourism has always been set as a goal that all cities pursue but only a few cities consider it as a means to reach other social goals; that is to say, the function of tourism in a city has, to date, received much less attention (Pappalepore, 2010). Nevertheless, tourism, as one of the fastest growing industries in the world, has played an important role in the globalised world. Through marketing and branding, cities around the world are striving to differentiate themselves to become more competitive, attract more investment and tourists (Larsen, Urry, & Axhausen, 2007; Urry & Larsen, 2011). It is difficult enough to cater to the needs of both residents and tourists. Many previous studies indicate that urban planning should prioritise residents’ needs; however, planning for the regeneration of a tourist destination would make this more complicated (Richards & Wilson, 2006a).. 25.

(27) 2-3. N EW T RAJECTORIES. IN. U RBAN R EGENERATION. AND. T OURISM 2-3-1. Culture’s Role in Urban Regeneration Culture and Creativity are now in the centre of spotlight in urban policy for many cities around the world. Many contemporary theories are also focusing on the role of culture and creativity in urban planning and social development (Balsas, 2004; Raco, 2003; Smith, 2007). This reflects that manifestation of culture-led regeneration and urban development has come to the central attention of government agendas. These new social, cultural, and economic changes particularly occur in cities because cities are where resources accumulate, ideas develop, and changes evolve. Using culture as a vehicle to regenerate places has become a major urban trend since the 1970s in the USA and the 1980s in Europe. Since then, culture has been widely applied in urban regeneration and place revitalisation; today it has become a global phenomenon (Degen & García, 2012; Evans, 2005; Miles & Paddison, 2005; Sasaki, 2004; Stevenson, 2003). Cities like Barcelona, Bilbao, Glasgow, and Liverpool received much attention for their successful physical transformations, social boosterism, and better image (García, 2004a, 2004b, 2005). In the 1970s, the US cities initiated their arts-led regeneration across the country. Projects and plans were expanded and developed in the 1980s. In the European context, since 1985, European cities started to compete for owning the ‘European Capital of Culture’ title designated by the European Union. This has interpreted that the highlight of ‘culture’ element in urban policy (Palmer Rae, 2004). Particularly in UK, deindustrialisation in many cities, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, had triggered the search for opportunities to reconstruct economic and social structure. Cultural policy was emphasised under this circumstance, along with the stimulation of cultural industries, which were viewed with much potential for the transformation of postindustrial image for most British cities (Murphy & Boyle, 2005). The concept of creating cultural clusters to spur urban development had also influenced other cities. Relevant discourses regarding creative quarters and clusters were widely being applied. 26.

(28) in the UK, with Spain adopting the approach later for the use of events in urban regeneration (Evans, 2005). 2-3-2. Culture, Spill-Over Effect for All Kinds of Regeneration? Modern urbanisation and regeneration began in the late 19th century in developed countries such as France and the United Kingdom. During the post-war period, many Western European cities experienced a very intensive reconstruction phase after the mid-1940s. Urban regeneration is a process of land renewal and redevelopment in areas which are going through a transformation in high-density urban land use or after environmental, social, or economic decline (Law, 1992; Paddison, 1993; Raco, 2003). It is the field of public policy that is concerned with the invigoration of economic activity, reassurance of social functioning, integration of social classes, restoration of environmental quality and ecological balance. Thus, urban regeneration is an aspect of rearranging and managing of existing urban areas rather than constructing of new urbanisation (Couch et al.2003). The Local Government Association in the UK defines regeneration as ‘ breathing new life and vitality into an ailing community, industry and area, bringing sustainable, long term improvements to the local quality of life, including economic, social and environmental needs’ (Local Government Association, 2000). Considerable literature has been published on urban regeneration since the 1970s. Before 1990, these studies mainly focused on the physical urban regeneration in the cities themselves and discussed mostly the economic benefits brought about by urban regeneration. In the mid-1980s, Castells pointed out that a crisis in the relationship between culture and politics was not a major concern in city planning (Castells, 1986). It is widely recognised that environmental and economic issues dominated the longlasting debate in urban regeneration and social issues began to be seriously taken into account within the agenda only in the late 1990s (Colantonio & Dixon, 2011). That was the moment that the urban regeneration policy emphasis shifted from ‘hard’ physical renewal to ‘soft’ cultural legacy to ‘social’ sustainability. (see Bailey, Miles, & Stark, 2007; Belfiore, 2002; García, 2005; Gezici & Kerimoglu, 2010; Sasaki, 2004; Sharp, Pollock, & Paddison, 2005) Accordingly, the shift was certainly well reflected in academic discussion and industrial fabric change. (see Battaglia & Tremblay, 2011a; 27.

(29) Biddulph, 2011; Colomb, 2011; Deakin, 2009; Degen & García, 2012; McCarthy, 2006; Miles & Paddison, 2005; Tallon, 2010) In physical regeneration, the main policy imperatives include appropriate land use and reorganisation of brownfield sites, enhancement of the quality of life and liveability, the discovery of larger open spaces, diversification of landscape, multi-utilisation of cultural infrastructure, conservation of heritage and historical sites, increasing inter- and intra- accessibility and mobility, and revitalisation of town centres (Palmer Rae, 2004; Russo & Van der Borg, 2008). Concerning economic regeneration, governments aim at, firstly, solving the unemployment problems influenced by the dramatic industrial decline and economic structural changes. Then it attempts to ensure job quality and attract inward investment in order to maximise regional development and wealth creation.. Finally, it hopes to assist establishment of SMEs and micro-enterprises,. highlight innovation and knowledge in an urban context, emphasise the importance of skills and knowledge, collaborate to create clusters for networking, and attract tourism (Spaans, 2004). In the aspect of social regeneration, social inclusion and cohesion are mainly emphasised together with neighbourhood renewal, promoting health and wellbeing, identity, accumulating social capital, ensuring well governance as well as localism, and promotion of active citizenship (Richards, 2010). While applying culture in urban regeneration, many scholars have carefully discussed and examined multidimensional impacts and some of them are interrelated. (see Bailey et al., 2007; McCarthy, 2006, 2010; McGregor, 1995) 2-3-3. Urban Regeneration for Creative Industries and Tourism The process of urban regeneration has had a major impact on many urban landscapes, and has played an important role in the history and demographics of cities around the world. Many studies have shown a connection between urban regeneration and tourism (Russo & Van der Borg, 2008; Smith, 2007). Urban regeneration policy no longer only aims at only residents, but also views tourism as an asset for urban development. With intervention, the positive impacts of tourism can possibly bring job opportunities to local communities, enhance a city’s international profile, stimulate the pride of local residents, attract foreign investment for economic growth, and beautify 28.

(30) the urban landscape with tourism revenue (Richards & Palmer, 2010). In addition, previous studies have shown that tourism, with careful planning and thorough evaluation, can collaborate with urban planning process and have various aspects of dynamism (Law, 1992). However, in recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on the shift from culture to creativity and its new role in the urban milieu (Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009; Cohendet, Grandadam, & Simon, 2011; Evans, 2007; Kunzmann, 2004; Richards, 2009b). Some of the literature focuses on the ‘lexical debates’ and argues that there are no significant differences exist between so-called ‘cultural industry’ and ‘creative industry.’ Other literature has opposite arguments regarding this debate (Pratt, 2011). In addition, Potts and Cunningham (2008, p. 242) have observed four reasons of expecting growth in the creative industries because they have the following characteristics: a) affluence rising to income elasticity of creative industries; b) rise of human capital with greater specialisation; c) growth in ICT and technology-based industry emphasised; and d) global markets growing in demand and factor mobility due to globalisation.. Many countries are striving to develop their creative industries, copyright industries, or cultural and creative industries (CCI) (O’Connor, 2009). Despite the ambiguity of the terms and categorisation, cities Nevertheless, culture can infiltrate the society, altering its fabric; therefore, adopting culture as a way to reach social transformation or using culture as a catalyst to regenerate the urban landscape could easily be achieved (see Sepe and Trapani2010) ; however, we must take into consideration that we also face other dilemmas and challenges such as gentrification, polarisation, and cultural-elitism (García, 2005). Is creativity a cure-all for each city that seeks an alternative way out? Pratt (2008) has suggested that cultural production is still important than cultural policy for cultural consumption or creative consumption. He went on arguing that many policymakers choose to use ‘creativity’ to substitute for the word ‘culture’ in urban strategy is to avoid people associating it with ‘high-culture’ or ‘high arts’. However, despite different 29.

(31) views on the function of ‘creativity’, it seems that replacing culture with ‘creativity’ has becoming the mainstream for most cities, or at least is a new focal point of attention (Foord, 2008).. 2-4. C ONCEPTUALISING ‘ CREATIVITY ’ 2-4-1. New Discourse: From Culture to Creativity Culture is generally believed to be a driver and enabler for sustainable development (UN TeskTeam, 2012). By January 2012, culture was included in 70% of the United Nations Development Assistance Frameworks. However, economic power within a country is exercised at a supra-national level. Culture can also be viewed as a force to brand a city and place making. If the importance of ‘native culture’ and ‘local culture’ were neglected in the globalised world, this high degree of using ‘common culture’ in urban policy could raise a dilemma as a result of fast growing similarities among cities around the world (Richards & Wilson, 2006b). Consequently, more and more cities are tending to view culture as a means to reach their urban development purposes; there is no clear legitimacy among the space, history, and people. Regardless of their uniqueness and background, cities borrow and copy regeneration ideas and city marketing strategies from other successful models (Harvey, Hawkins, & Thomas, 2012). Thus, a growing number of cities are striving to compete by staging themselves as spaces for tourism consumption (Rogerson, 2006). After examining evidence about culture’s contribution to regeneration, Evans (2005) recommended a pluralist rather than a standardised approach developing an evaluation model and schema of a set of indicators. Richards and Wilson (2007c) believe that culture could also lead to ‘the same formulaic mechanisms’ which have resulted in the serial reproduction of culture. The creative turn in culture-led development was therefore stimulated by a number of basic factors. First, the development of the symbolic economy (Lash & Urry, 1994) privileged creativity over cultural products. Second, regions and cities have increasingly used culture as a form of valorisation (Evans & Shaw, 2004). Third, the sheer 30.

(32) proliferation of ‘real cultural capital’ created the need to find new cultural signs to create distinction in an increasingly crowded marketplace (Zukin, 1988). Finally, places which do not have a rich built heritage or iconic architecture and therefore lack the ‘real cultural capital’ needed to find a new means of cultural development. Creativity has been considered a strong potential factor that leads to economic growth. For many urban planners and policy makers, creativity seems to be the solution to difficult economic, political, and socio-cultural scenarios (Cohendet et al., 2011; Florida, 2002; Frey, 2009; Landry, 2008; Okano & Samson, 2010). Nowadays, this creative discourse has touched many other industries, including the discourse on tourism. A creative turn in urban development appeared in later years; the notion of an ‘experience economy’ introduced by Pine and Gilmore (1998) facilitated the growth of using ‘culture’ to ensure development of themed and staged experiences (Richards and Wilson2007b). Creative industries are now being used widely in the field of cultural policy and urban planning, for it can create value and produce symbols (Evans, 2007; Prentice, 2003; Richards & Wilson, 2006c; Richards & Wilson, 2007b; Rogerson, 2006; Santagata, Russo, & Segre, 2007). The recognition of the economic benefits of tourism and the role of culture can rebrand urban images. In addition, tourism today is a part of the cultural economy because of its symbolic content, but tourism was once only considered a peripheral part of the arts (Evans, 2007). It is believed that metropolitan areas are where the role of tourism can be renewed; tourism is considered as more than a mass phenomenon (Gemmiti, 2008b). To conclude, it is crucial to further address the complex relationship between tourism and the creativity sector, they both function as an instrument of revival for urban identity and image (Pratt, 2010). ‘Creative tourism’ is a term that was coined by Richards and Raymond (2000). It is also believed that creative tourism is a new form of cultural tourism, but it can also provide some solutions to increasing problems in cultural tourism development (Richards & Wilson, 2007b). As shown in many studies on the issue, they believe that creative tourism can ‘offer visitors the opportunity to develop their creative potential through active participation.’ Moreover, creative tourism has been claimed to be able to 31.

(33) provide an alternative method for cultural regeneration (Gezici & Kerimoglu, 2010; Local Government Association, 2000; Richards & Wilson, 2007a; Russo & Van der Borg, 2008; Smith, 2007). Maitland (2010a) further addresses the importance of rethinking other approaches to tourist experiences, so cities are now striving to create a mechanism and reorganise new spaces. Tourism can no longer be viewed as a product for tourists only, but a boarder perspective context regarding a better quality of life and a feel-good factor (Alvarez, 2010). Tourism plays an important role in the image shaping process, illustrating a major rationale for the aesthicisation of landscapes, also altering the environment to meet the needs of consumers (Leiper, Stear, Hing, & Firth, 2008). Previous studies have demonstrated that, for a majority of cities, using culture as a catalyst to reach urban regeneration is not only for local ecology, but also to attract tourists and visitors (Law, 1992; Russo & Van der Borg, 2008; Smith, 2007). That is to say, tourism plays an important role in urban regeneration. A positive outcome to a successful urban regeneration plan could lead to successful tourism development.. 2-4-3. Defining Creativity Nowadays, ‘creativity’ has become the most common key word in all fields. It is common to find discourses on creativity such as the economy, tourism studies, urban studies, and cultural policy. On behalf of European Commission, a report of KEA European Affairs (2009, p. 36) states: Creativity is a complex process of innovation, combing some or all of the following dimensions: ideas, skills, technology, management, production processes as well as culture. Creativity has the ability t o benefit all economic sectors.. Also, creativity, in etymological explanation, refers to making, to creating. Creativity refers to invention or the origin of new things such as new ideas, new products, new concepts, and new artwork. As Dangschat and Frey (2005, p. 1) put it:. 32.

(34) as an individual property, as capital, as a “connecting device” in the context of new networks, as a model of governance based more on the civil society with regard to the relationship between state, community and market and, most notably, as a starting point for cities and regions to survive economically or to provide position features that can be sold even more effectively in the competition of metropolises and regions.. According to a few arguments, creativity should not be interpreted as only a new phrase to replace ‘culture.’ It could provide a new way to look at ‘high culture.’ Since Landry (2000) initiated the discussion and notion of ‘creative city,’ many attempts have been made in various cities to redefine their urban spaces as creative city, world cities, knowledge city, etc. UNESCO has further launched a Creative Cities Network for developing international cooperation among cities to work towards a common mission for cultural diversity and sustainable urban development (UNESCO Creative Cities2006). This has shown that policy makers now value the discourse on creativity while planning for urban development projects and the establishment of creative quarters. Furthermore, creative industries’ contribution to reconstruct a city’s social fabric, cultural diversity, and enhancement of quality of life can help to strengthen identity and sustainability for urban development (Chapain & Comunian, 2010). Within Creative Cities Network, creative tourism, along with creative economy, are two major themes that cities around the world are focusing. Cities hope to be able to be appointed to the network, so they can develop its resources and creativity through such an international platform. In the shaping of creativity in urban landscape, places need to be coordinated with events in order to solidify cities’ creative sectors. As Cohendet et al. (2011, p. 153) argue, ‘...what is essential for the creative process to become effective is that the creative city be equipped with a valuable set of places/. 33.

(35) spaces/ projects/ events enabling the production and diffusion of knowledge assets through the different layers of the local milieu.’. This has justified for the model of creative tourism that Richards and Wilson (2006b) proposed: first phase is to develop creative spectacles through events to attract the more passive tourists; then second phase is to stimulate different strategies to form creative places where creative resources and networking are provided for both tourists and local creative sector; finally the co-creation tourism activities, such as participatory workshops and interaction among tourists and locals, are ultimate objectives (Wurzburger, Aageson, Pattakos, & Pratt, 2010). The framework of three forms of creative tourism presented byRichards and Wilson (2006a) has received much attention and debates. However, lack of much hard evidences, the conceptual framework has aroused questions such as: ‘What is the rationale among these three elements?’ and ‘creative tourism could be successful if only the two other categories need to be satisfied first?’ One decade has passed since the term was coined, and the conceptual framework has been more developed. As in a more recent paper, Richards (2013b) renames the three categories as: creative events, creative places, and creative tourism from the original names: creative spectacles, creative spaces, and creative tourism. He continues to display the interrelationship among the three elements: ‘….Richards and Wilson (2006) identify three specific forms of creative development related to tourism in cities: creative places, creative events and creative tourism. Although it is tempting to treat these as discrete categories, there is a growing integration between them: for example, events are becoming hubs in global networks that concentrate creativity in certain places and cultural spaces provide the local embedding necessary for developing creative tourism.’ (ibid p8). In order to illustrate this shift, Figure 3 displays the shift of the names of three elements used in the conceptual framework from the year 2006 to 2014. Figure 3. The Evolvement of Three Elements in Creative Tourism D evelopment 34.

(36) Source: Richards & Wilson (2006, 2007) ; Richards (2012, 2013). Creative Spactacles. Creative Spaces Creative Tourism (Richards & Wilson, 2006a, 2006b, 2007a, 2007b). CreativeEvents Creative Places Creative Tourism (Richards 2012b, 2013a, 2013b). 2-4-4. Key Approaches: Creativity in Cities Vs. Creativity in Tourism Paying attention to city marketing campaigns or urban tourism promotion, it is not difficult to find new keywords are rising, such as the ‘coolest’ city, the ‘hottest’ place in the whole country, even ‘hipster-friendly.’ For the past 20 years, culture and creativity have emerged as the most frequent buzzwords for almost every urban project, city image building campaign, and tourism marketing panacea. Culture comes before the advent of creativity. The approach of using cultural industries in urban development in Rome and London in the 1980s was the prototype of the current debate on the ‘creative city’ in the study of Landry and Bianchini (1995). Richards (2013b) claims that this was when a watershed between ‘creativity as a process’ and ‘culture as a product’ began to influence policymaking on a city scale. He has further categorised three approaches in materialising creativity in cities as: the creative industries approach, the creative city concept and the creative class model. Drawing from different studies, the following Table 1. presents the focus, forms of capital and the creative content in the three categories in creative tourism development. Table 1. Creative Content in the Three Elements. Creative Events. Creative Places. 35. Creative Tourism.

(37) Focus. Creative production Creative consumption. Creative milieu. Forms of capital. Economic. Social cultural. Creative content. Creative Festivals Creative Moments Creative Activities Creative Force Creative Industries Development Richards (2013b) Richards & Wilson (2006b, 2007a ) Richards & Marques(2012) Richards & Palmer (2010). Creative Fields Creative Suburbia Creative Milieu Creative Hotspots Creative Spaces Richards (2013b) Landry (2000) Landry &Bianchini (1995). Key sources. Creative production Creative consumption. and Creative. Creative Travel Creative Tourists Creative Host Creative networks Creative relationships Richards (2013b) Maitland (2010b). Examining other articles written by Richards (2013a, 2013b) and Richards and Wilson (2006b, 2007a), one can see that the evolvement of the theory of the three specific forms of creative tourism development. The role of creative events are commonly believed as a great way to enliven urban problems, and the component of a creative event should include creative production with a specific focus on economic capital. Creative contents such as film, the arts, architecture, design, and media are all critical elements to make an event ‘creative’ (Richards, 2012b). The connection between events and creative industries should underlie this core theoretical concept. ‘Creative spectacles’ is replaced by ‘creative events’, not only for the name been changed, the explanation of what a creative event has become clearer with richer examples. However, the term ‘creative events’ has a wider meaning than the original term and also includes more elements such as ‘creative festivals’, ‘creative moments’, ‘creative force’ and ‘creative industries development’ (Richards, 2013b). This might lead to a problem that too many activities can easily be claimed as so-called ‘creative events.’ The same issues might occur in a discourse on ‘creative places’. To sum up, this study has adopted the conceptual framework of creative tourism development raised by Richards and Wilson (2006b, 2007a) and modified by Richards (2011, 2012, 2013b). As Richards (2013b) discusses, creativity in cities and creativity in 36.

(38) tourism overlap in some area. Therefore, the following Table 2. tries to identify different existed theories concerning creativity in cities in order to compare with Richards’ conceptual framework concerning creativity in tourism. To address the research gap, this study has selected only one city- Barcelona to exemplify the theoretical framework of creative tourism development. Due to lack of empirical data in the proposed framework, this study aims to fill the gap by analysing three elementscreative events, creative places, and creative tourism, all in one singular city. Furthermore, the interrelationship of the three elements are discussed and analysed. In the following sections, we will attempt to configure 3 elements of creativity in tourism with 3 theories concerning creativity in cities.. Table 2.. Evolvement of the Creative Tourism Theory and Key Elements Mirroring. Existed Theory on Creativity in Cities. Relating To Existed Theory On Creativity in an Urban Context Creative Industries (Dcms1998, 2001). Creative Cities (Landry&Bianchini 1995, Landry 2000) Creative Class (Florida 2002). Creativity In Tourism (2006,2007,2011) Creative Spectacles →. Creativity In Tourism (2012, 2013) Creative Events. Creative Space →. Creative Places. Creative Tourism →. Creative Tourism. 37. Interchangeable Keywords Shown In The Articles (ibid) Creative Festivals Creative Moments Creative Activities Creative Force Creative Industries Development Creative Fields Creative Suburbia Creative Milieu Creative Hotspots Creative Spaces Creative Travel Creative Tourists Creative Host Creative networks2012 Creative relationships 2012.

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(40) 2-5 C REATIVE E VENTS 2-5-1. Creative Industries Strategies in the Building of Creative Events Events can provide activities which animate and enliven a place (Richards 2013b). The role of events are drawing increasing attention due to its ability to stage spectacles to give more dynamics to a certain place. Many cities around the world are also developing events as a ‘creative force.’ (ibid) Besides, many studies have suggested that events on various scales can function differently in regions or cities. For instance, Prentice and Andersen (2003) has identified that The Edinburgh Festival itself as a form of creative tourism. Richards (2013b) has categorised the Edinburgh Festival, London Fashion Week, the Sundance Festival, and the Cannes Film Festival as the prototypes of ‘creative festivals,’ because such festivals are capable of configuring the environment of the cities and enable actors to gather in order to reconstruct the creative fields. Richards and Wilson (2006b) have proposed that the three major elements in the development of creative tourism are: creative spectacles, creative spaces, and creative tourism. The explanation of each element was given but no clear definition except for the term ‘creative tourism’ itself.. Back then, creative spectacles are given with. following definition: ‘Individuals or groups undertaking creative and innovative activities which then form the basis of more passive tourist experiences as spectacles. (i.e. production of creative experiences for passive consumption by tourists) ’ (Richards and Wilson 2007b: 20). Over these years, the original theoretical framework raised by Richards and Wilson (2006c) on the development of creative tourism as creative spectacles, creative spaces, and creative tourism has gradually been changed into other elements. They are: creative events, creative places, and creative tourism (Richards 2013b). The name-changing statement could perhaps lead to difficulties for conceptualising the framework. The term ‘creative spectacle’ and ‘creative events’ might perhaps overlap but retain different meanings. Lacking a clear definition, the interchangeable terms of ‘events’, ‘festivals’, and ‘spectacles’ might be an issue for policy makers and scholars who wish to undertake a test on the framework. 39.

(41) The creative spectacle element of the creative tourism development theory raised by Richards and Wilson (2006a, 2007b) and Richards (2012a, 2013a, 2013b) has adopted a broader definition. Also, the name has changed from ‘creative spectacles’ to ‘creative events’, this has led to more subthemes being categorised under this new definition: ‘..events can therefore be a way of creating new forms of sociality and links between visitors and cities’ (Richards 2013b, p11). However, with the new definition, creative events can include many types of activities, such as festivals, events, celebrations, mega-events can all link between people and places. It is still debatable whether all these festivals, events, celebrations, or even mega-events can be viewed as ‘creative events’. The essence to make these events ‘creative’ needs to be identified and defined. Currently, festivals and events are being used widely in cities for promotion of tourism, building of the image of cities, and growth of employment rates (Bond, 2008; Getz, 2008; Gladstone, 2012; Joanne Connell 2010). In addition, Quinn (2010, p. 75) has observed that ‘arts festivals are particularly synonymous with cities, and cities, in turn are particularly synonymous with tourism.’ Meanwhile, Richards (2013b) explains that creative festivals are ‘co-opted by cities to further broader policy agendas, such as creative industries development or culture tourism (shows in the case of urban art festivals). For abovementioned discussion, this study believes that creative events can only be called ‘creative’ when events are linking with creative industries development. Tourists nowadays are pursuing more creative experiences with richer meaning when undertake tourism activities; thus, this means cities are now facing challenges to appeal to these ‘creative tourists’. Cities need to combine their hardware and software power to accumulate and cluster creative resources for their residents and visitors. Among the three core elements, creative events (spectacles) are the basic requirements for less proactive tourism experiences, but creativity and innovation still need to be ensured to make it special for consumers (Richards & Wilson, 2007b). This phase is emphasised more concerning the production of creative experiences for passive consumption (Leiper et al., 2008). Spectacles can be staged through events, activities, 40.

(42) festivals and performances that can create memorable appearances and experiences. In this study, the genres of creative events will be presented as discussion regarding events and festivals (Prentice, 2003). Nevertheless, creativity should still be the thread running throughout the events and (or) festivals.. 2-5-2. Events for the Transformation of Cities Events can generate other social impacts more than just the physical appearance of a city. Roche (2000) has also addressed mega-events that were highly politically operated, and the relevant issues regarding peace, social justice, citizenship, and social inclusion. After staging the 1992 Olympics, Barcelona has also greatly enhanced its international profile by creating a high visibility brought by the mega-event (Evans, 2006). The city also underwent a series of urban regeneration and waterfront projects with the subsidies and financial resources received from staging such an event on a mega scale (García, 2004a). Barcelona’s urban history and experience in creating spectacles for its own city are intertwined. Richards and Wilson (2006b) believe that the 1992 Games and 2004 Forums had been a good example of creative urban development, because it ‘had emphasised the upgrading of infrastructure and creation of public space.’ Events can also be utilised as a means of reshaping or fortifying the city image, facilitating urban regeneration by augmenting their cultural facilities and infrastructures (Richards & Palmer, 2010). Once post-event planning is done thoroughly by organisers, creative tourism products can easily be developed because the products are usually connected to creative spaces or events (Richards, 2007). Events were originally coordinated with the tourism sector for its function of being able to balance seasonality and the ability to create product differentiation (Liu, 2012). Cities around the world have started to face severe competition in bidding for Megaevents such as the Olympic Games, World Cups, and EXPOs; these events with an international scale can generate great benefits and also impose huge impacts on the host cities, positive and negative (A.T.Kearney, 2005; Getz, 2008; Ritchie, 1984; Roche, 2000). Besides sports, one major event that contributes greatly to urban cultural tourism, European Capitals of Culture (ECOC), is a year-round cultural project launched by a 41.