Chapter 2.Theoretical Framework
2.3. Research Methodology
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geshe as long as a candidate takes a special scholarly training and pass the necessary exams,89 gives the illustration of rather democratic feature of Gelukpa’s hierarchical system
The attitude of current the Dalai Lama Fourteenth complements the general ideas of compatibility of Tibetan Buddhism and democracy. For instance, during the series of lectures at George Washington University, His Holiness the Dalai Lama Fourteen gave his perspectives on the relationships between Buddhism and democracy. According to him, both Buddhism and democracy are compatible due to the fact, that they are rooted in the egalitarianism. Moreover, as aforesaid, the examples of the democratic procedure of decision making has a long lasting history in the Buddhist tradition: the Buddhist monastic order’s collective decision making;
every rite concerning the maintenance of monastic practice must be performed with a congregation of at least four monks; and, even the teaching of the Buddha can be altered under certain circumstances by a congregation of a certain number of ordained monks.90 Moreover, the unprecedented political decisions of Dalai Lama Fourteenth to give up his political power to the Assembly of Tibetan People’s Deputies, and adopt the Charter of Tibetans in Exile, which was modelled on constitutions from established democracies91, also demonstrate rather flexible and tolerant character of Tibetan Buddhism.
2.3. Research Methodology
The research method used in this thesis will be the historical research method. The aim of historical research is to “uncover the unknown; to answer questions; to seek implications orrelationships of events from the past and their connections with the present;to assess past
89 Ibid, 237-240.
90His Holliness the Dalai Lama, “Buddhism, Asian Values, and Democracy,” in World Religions and Democracy, ed.
Larry Diamond, et al. (Baltimore and London: John Hopkins University Press, 2005), 70-71.
91Ibid.
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activities and accomplishments of individuals, agencies, orinstitutions; and to aid generally in our understanding of human culture”.92 Thus, our aim is to explore how Kalmyk Buddhism evolved over time, and how it facilitates religious tolerance in Kalmykia.
As mentioned above, we have divided our collected data into primary and secondary sources, according to Norman Cantor and Richard Schneider’s classification.93More specifically, for primary data we rely on the ethnographic works of I.A. Zhitesky,N.Y. Bichurin, and V.M.
Bakunin, A. Pozdneev.
To explore the interactions between Kalmyk Buddhism and the Russian state, we will mainly use secondary sources.We examine the works of A.A. Kurapov “Buddhism i Vlast v Kalmytskom Khanstve”94, Galini Dorzhievoj “Buddhism Kalmykii v Veroispovedatel’noj politike Rossijskogo gosudarstva: seredina XVII – nachalo XX vv.”95, and A.N. Bashaev and K. N. Maksimov and
“Buddhiskaya Tserkov Kalmykii: 1900-1943 gg.”.96
We divided our research framework into three main periods: from 1640 to1917, from 1922 to 1939, and from 1988 to 1995. The decision to divide the timeframe precisely into these three periods has to do with the turning points in the history of Kalmyk Buddhism. Thus, we take 1640 as the beginning of the first period, as it is the year of adoption the Great Code of Laws (Kalmyk:
Ики Цааджин Бичик), which recognized the Buddhism of the Tibetan Gelukpa school, as the
92 Bruce L. Berge, “Historiography and Oral Tradition” in Qualitative Research Method for the Social Sciences (Long Beach: California State University, 2001), 212.
93 Norman F. Cantor and Richard I. Schneider, How to Study History (New York: Wiley-Blackwell,1967), 22-24.
94Andrey Kurapov, Buddhism i Vlast v Kalmytskom Khanstve vXVII-XVIII vv.(Buddhism and Power in the Kalmyk Khanate in XVII-XVIII centuries) (Astrakhanʹ: Dzhangar, 2007.)
95 Galina Dorzhievoj, Buddhism Kalmykii v Veroispovedatel’noj politike Rossijskogo gosydarstva: seredina XVII – nachalo XXvv. (Buddhism of Kalmykia in the Russian state’s religious policy: the middle of VII – beginning of XX centuries), (Elista: Izd-vo Kalmytskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, 2012.).
96 Araltan Baskhaev, BuddhiskayaTserkovKalmykii: 1900-1943 gg. (Buddhist Church of Kalmykia: 1900-1943), (Ėlista: Dzhangar, 2007.)
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official religion.97 Moreover, the Kalmyk’s arrival to the Caspiansteppes and their first contacts with the Russian state are marked by a high presence of Buddhist attributes and Buddhist actors.98 Although, the annexation of the Kalmyk lands in 1771 lead to more regulations of the Kalmyk Buddhism by the Russian authorities, we believe that mutual friendly relations remained present between two parties. Therefore, we entitle the first period as a flourishing of Kalmyk Buddhism.
The second period, from 1922 to 1939, marks a period of oppression for not only Buddhism as a religious belief but also, for some period of time, for Kalmyks as an ethnos. We purposely left out the years of Russian Civil War (1917-1922), as there was no a unified policies on religious issues, which is crucial for examining Kalmyk Buddhism. Moreover, we end our second research period in 1939, as by that year Kalmyk Buddhism stopped its existence as a social institution.99
The third period,1988-1995, begins with the change of Russian state policy concerning religion:
the legalization of religious practice, open prayer houses and foundation of religious communities. The third period represents the religious renaissanceof Kalmyk Buddhism: the restoration of its relations with the state, the engagement of more people, and the establishment of new Buddhist communities.
In order to fully answer our main research questions: why there is no serious religious conflict in the Republic of Kalmykia, despite the presence of different religious and ethnic groups, when the Buddhists in South East Asia are fighting Muslims? Why are the ethnic and religious “others”
not discriminated by the Kalmyk and Buddhist majority? And what facilitates the harmony found
97Nikolay Bichurin, Zapiski o Mongolii (Notes about Mongolia), Sankt-Peterburg: Tip. Karla Kraya, 1828).
98Kurapov, Buddhism i Vlast v Kalmytskom Khanstve, 89.
99Baskhaev, BuddijskayaCerkov' Kalmykii, 181.
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in the Republic of Kalmykia?
We suggest the hypothesis that the reason for religious tolerance and harmony in the Republic of Kalmykia can be found in the democratic features of Kalmyk Buddhism, its “democratic theology,” “democratic ecclesiology,”100 and its interactions with the state.In order to explore Kalmyk Buddhism’s democratic features, we examine andanalyze the evolution of Kalmyk Buddhism over time, its interactions with the state and the laity, as well as its institutional structure.
We take the attitude of the religious leaders and the sangha towards the socio-political matters as an indicator for the political theology. At the same time, we assume that the code of laws and rules of the sangha, and the laws of the central religious organizations are the valid indicators for the religious polity of Kalmyk Buddhism. Additionally, we alsolook at Kalmyk Buddhist sangha involvement in the political contacts, as well as the use or not use of the Kalmyk Buddhist ceremonies for the political purposes, as an indicator for the political interactions between Kalmyk Buddhism and the Russian state.
Due to the lack of time and resources we were not able to conduct our own interviews, hence, we use as our primary data sources from National Archive of the Republic of Kalmykia, the official interviews of the religious leaders in the newspapers, news websites, and official webpage of the central Buddhist organization of KalmykiaGolden Adobe of Buddha Shakyamuni. Moreover, at our requests, the Shadzhin Lama (head lama) of Kalmyk people and the President of the Buddhist Union of Kalmykia Telo Tulku Rinpoche granted us with an access to the Charter of the Union, and the Charter of the Kalmyk Buddhist Monastery.
100See Chapter 2.1.
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Thus, we divide our data analysis in three dimensions:
(1) Political Theology of Kalmyk Buddhism
As political theology investigates the connections between religious and political ideas and practices, this dimension will deal with official statements of clergy on secular issues and the laws of monasteries and Buddhist organizations. We will also concentrate on the key points of the relationship between Buddhism, laity and the state. And in the end we will compare the results with the ideal of “democratic political theology”.
(2)Religious Polity of Kalmyk Buddhism
In this dimension, we explore the way Kalmyk Buddhist organizations are governed, and examine the role of monks in the Buddhist organizations, and the position of the laity therein.
And in the end we will compare the results with the “democratic ecclesiology”.
(3) Political Interactions between Kalmyk Buddhism and the Russian state,
Due to the peculiarity of Kalmyk state, namely, being part of the Russian state, and the peripheral position of Buddhism in comparison to Russian Orthodox Christianity, this study will incorporate this dimension. It will study the political interactions between Kalmyk Buddhism and the Russian state, as well as the attitude of Kalmyk Buddhism, its organizations, and monks towards the central government of the Russian state.
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