Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Research background
國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Research background
1.1-1 The expansion of higher education in Taiwan
The twenty-first century is an era of knowledge economy. The demand of higher education is becoming a worldwide trend where Taiwan definitely can not be exceptional. There was only one university, the National Taiwan University, upon the retreat of government from mainland in 1949. There were also other three independent colleges: The Engineering College at Tainan, The Agricultural College at Taichung, and The Normal College at Taipei. The total number of students in higher education was 5,374 in 1949 (Department of Statistics, Ministry of Education). The number of enrollment of colleges and universities increased over 100,000 in 1971, 250,000 in 1991, 500,000 in 2000, and reached 1,010,000 in 2010. Fig. 1.1 demonstrates graphically the rapid expansion of higher education in Taiwan.
Year
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
Student Numbers (thousand)
0 200 400 600 800
1000 Doctorol degree
Master degree Undergraduate
Fig. 1.1 The number of enrollment for higher education in Taiwan from 2001 to 2010. (Department of Statistics, Ministry of Education, Taiwan)
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
According to the White Paper of University Education Policy (Ministry of Education in Taiwan, 2001), the development of universities was classified by their patterns as general universities or specialized colleges. They can also be graded by their nature as research, teaching, and community universities. It was observed at the beginning of the 21st century that many higher education organizations set their targets as the promotion from teaching or technological oriented units to research type general universities. This motive is not correct, and the situation becomes even worse after 9 years from the announcement of the White Paper. The results are the waste of higher education resources and the intermixing of their proper functions.
Universities have been existed in one form or another for more than several hundred years in the world (Kells, 2006). Higher education nowadays is not considered only for elite, but also for much broader groups with different qualities and requirements. The proper differentiation for the functions of higher education organizations was aimed as an important factor during the higher education reform in Taiwan. This reform engineering can not be successfully accomplished if the curriculum design and outcomes assessment were not carefully evaluated.
The transition from elitism to mass higher education in Taiwan has been discussed by Wang (2003). Wang pointed out two important issues of the unemployment rate of university graduates and the increasing financial burdens on the government. Lin (2007) also investigated the education expansion and the phenomena of inequality in Taiwan. It was shown by the Gini coefficient analyses that the rapid education expansion in Taiwan from 1980 declined the educational inequality. The skill-biased technological change, however, also resulted in the rise in income inequality. The national policy of higher education expansion in Taiwan has a correct
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
direction, but it definitely generated some negative effects. Quality assurance is becoming a major concern along with the rapid expansion of higher education. A balance between supply and demand of highly educated graduates is worthy considering in order to avoiding the problems of over-education and unemployment.
1.1-2 The importance of quality control of higher education
Since Taiwan has a rapid higher education expansion in the past two decades, quality control of those educational organizations and professional programs becomes highly required. According to the message from the president of the Higher Education Evaluation & Accreditation Council of Taiwan (HEEACT), university evaluation is “a long term commitment and an important tool to raise the standard of higher education institutions”. The purposes of higher education evaluation or accreditation include the following items: (1) to examine the current quality status of the academic programs of higher education institutions. (2) to assess the learning environment and to suggest improvement mechanisms for those institutions. (3) to assist the institutions on developing their teaching excellences. (4) to provide evaluation results to government for future public policies.
The higher education in Taiwan faces many challenges after the education reform during the last decade. Some indexes had been suggested and quantitative comparisons had been presented with other countries (楊朝祥，徐明珠，2008). These indexes were used as the references for the formulation of policy, and as the standards of educational evaluation. The indexes they analyzed included the percentages of educational budgets out of GDP, the impact factors of SCI (Science Citation Index) and SSCI (Social Science Citation Index) research papers, and the number of foreign
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
quantitative indexes, it is observed that quality control of higher education is a national policy especially in the era of globalization.
The proper function of higher education evaluation had been discussed. The higher education evaluation results had been investigated according to the announcement by HEEACT (王順民，2007). In year 2007, the percentage of passing the HEEACT evaluation was 66%. This number reflected an unqualified structure after the higher education expansion. Many institutions did not have clear educational objectives, or enough teaching facilities. The higher education evaluation should not become “the straw that breaks the camel’s back” (王順民，2007). The mission of higher education evaluation is not a threat or burden to the students and teachers. It should provide a diagnostic function to the institutions. It should also yield advices to the policy makers of the government.
The White Paper of University Education Policy (2001) stated that an evaluation system should be established for the close range target of academic excellence. This evaluation system is planned as a non-governmental organization to reach the quality assurance of higher education programs. This policy has been put into effect in recent years. Further investigations are definitely required to improve the effectiveness of teaching mechanism in Taiwan. These investigations are also essential to direct the national policy for monitoring the quality of higher education in Taiwan.
1.1-3 The impact of globalization in higher education
The progress of higher education requires initiative improvement as well as external stimulation. It is stated in the White Paper of University Education Policy, Ministry of Education, Taiwan (2001) that the international exchange and cooperation
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
are the essential parts for higher education development. This policy is implemented in many higher education institutions as they have started programs for receiving foreign students in recent years.
Globalization and the growing knowledge-based economy caused the progress of higher education as business practice with competition in a global marketplace. Mok (2003) discussed the globalization and higher education reconstructing in Hong Kong, Taiwan and Mainland China. Mok (2003) stated that the strategies in university governance included more decentralization, privatization and marketization. Although the state should play an important role in policy choices, there is increasing need to measure the quality assurance and to audit the performance of higher education institutions. The non-governmental evaluation/accreditation institutions should be responsible for this mission.
Although globalization is an inevitable trend, international policy and practice for higher education have not been successfully developed in every state of the world.
For example, Van Damme (2001) discussed the quality issues on international higher education. He stated that the export of higher education via branch campus and international cooperation have developed a transnational network. The following challenges have to be faced such as the recognition of foreign diplomas, degrees and credits. Lieven and Martin (2006) again discussed the situation of setting up for-profit, offshore programs and campuses of higher education institutions. They presented that higher education is becoming a global free market while its regulation is still strongly under the local national systems. The demands of the consumers (the students) may not be operated on the basis of quality. The governments have to be responsible for regulating provisions which directly affect the citizens.
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Julian and Ofori-Dankwa (2006) discussed that the on-line education or virtual universities led to discontinuous changes in the business school. They argued that the accreditation standards are better situated for traditional or continuous institutions rather than the discontinuous environment. The opposite argument has been presented by Zammuto (2008) that the diffusion of accreditation into the growth of for-profit universities is beneficial to part-time or international students in business school. This is because that accreditation requires the schools to identify the clarity of markets they served. The results of accreditation brought differentiation among institutions as their markets are becoming more competitive.
It is interesting to note that education is becoming a commodity, and students are treated as customers (The Future Projects: Policy for Higher Education in a Changing World, 2000). Some famous companies have formed a joint venture with universities, and described itself as a global education market. Many university leaders seek to capture higher education market abroad. It is also recognized that political and economical integrations are undergoing in various regions such as the European Union. Transnational education and cross-border job market are important in regional development. Under such circumstances, accreditation of higher education programs and degrees is essential to substantial equivalence and mobility of professionals.
Taiwan can not isolate itself from this worldwide trend. The discussion for the economic effects of higher education expansion such as the labor market and professional mobility are worthwhile.
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) established in 1989 has 21 members, including Chinese Taipei. The APEC Education Foundation (AEF) was incepted in 1995 with the missions to develop regional cooperation of higher
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
education, study key regional economic issues, improve worker skills, facilitate cultural and intellectual exchange, enhance labor mobility and foster understanding of the diversity of this region (AEF website). Under the APEC system, there are committees to promote the frameworks of substantial equivalence and mutual exemption. These frameworks are aimed at the registration and licensing of professional engineers. To fulfill the targets of mutual recognition between economy members, accreditation of higher education degree is an essential step. Taiwan is also a full member of APEC Engineer. The professional engineering works (Chinese Taipei APEC Engineer Monitoring Committee, CTAEMC) are supported by the Public Construction Commission of the Executive Yuan (Chu, 2006).
Taking the engineering accreditation (for 4-year programs) as an example, there is a worldwide organization of Washington Accord (WA). The WA was founded in 1989 and has 12 full signatories including the leading countries of USA, UK and Japan, as shown in Table 1.1. The Institution of Engineer Education Taipei (IEET) became the full signatory (IEET, Chinese Taipei) in June of 2007. As we have discussed above, higher education is becoming as a market good. We must consider the globalization and substantial equivalence with major countries in the world.
Through the global membership, the problems of transnational education, distance learning, and professional licensing can be solved.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was founded in 1967 for the regional economic development. A Bali Declaration was signed in 2003 by ASEAN countries for the mobility of professionals and technologists. The ASEAN mutual recognition arrangement on engineering services was signed in 2005 for chartered engineers to conduct their works in 10 ASEAN countries. Since Taiwan is
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
located within this region, we have to promote a clear public policy of higher education in order to meet the regional and international standards. This policy is closely related to the career of students and the economic developments of the state.
Table 1.1 The signatories of Washington Accord (WA)
The following are the signatory accreditation bodies of the Washington Accord, their respective countries and territories, and years of admission:
1. Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (United States; 1989)
2. Canadian Council of Professional Engineers (Canada; 1989)
3. Engineering Council UK (United Kingdom; 1989)
4. Institution of Engineers Australia (Australia; 1989)
5. Institution of Engineers of Ireland (Republic of Ireland; 1989)
6. Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand (New Zealand; 1989)
7. Hong Kong Institution of Engineers (Hong Kong; 1995)
8. Engineering Council of South Africa (South Africa; 1999)
9. Japan Accreditation Board for Engineering Education (Japan; 2005)
10. Institution of Engineers Singapore (Singapore; 2006)
11. Accreditation Board for Engineering Education of Korea (South Korea; 2007)
12. Institute of Engineering Education Taiwan (Taiwan; 2007)
13. Board of Engineers Malaysia (Malaysia; 2009)
The provisional signatories include Germany, India, Russia, Sri Lanka, and Turkey.
There is also an Asian-Pacific regional organization for higher education accreditation in the discipline of engineering. This regional integration is the Network of Accreditation Bodies for Engineering Education in Asia (NABEEA). It was formally established in 2007 at Penang, Malaysia. It has 9 full members and the geographical distribution is shown in Fig. 1.2 (Japan Accreditation Board for Engineering Education, JABEE website, 2009).
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
Fig. 1.2 Distribution of full members of NABEEA.
It is shown in Fig. 1.2 that both IEET and CTAEMC of Taiwan are involved in the NABEEA structure. The goal of NABEEA is to form an engineering education accreditation body or agency for Asian region, with possible extension to Pacific or Middle East countries. It seems to follow the European pattern of the Bologna Process (Shearman, 2007). Japan plays a leading role in the promotion of NABEEA. Since Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Malaysia are full signatories of WA, these jurisdictions also participate into the preparing process of NABEEA. This is another example that Taiwan is involving in the international affairs through higher education accreditation.
It is observed from Fig. 1.2 that China and India are not joining the NABEEA (nor the WA) organization yet. Taiwan is in a leading position by now, but is also facing more challenges in the near future. The non-governmental accreditation commissions are key roles in the global structure like WA and NABEEA. A perspective of higher education progress and professional mobility should also be guided by the policy of
‧
國立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
state.