Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Formation of higher educational networks
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Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Formation of higher educational networks
2.1-1 The Bologna Process
Starting from the last one or two decades, higher education in the world began to initiate networks. The major aim of forming the network is to reach an equivalent educational standard for professional mobility and licensure. Taking the engineering profession as an example, the Bologna Process undergoing in Europe is widely discussed in literature since it has resulted significant influences not only in European Union, but also on other regions of the world.
The Bologna Process is a European reform process in order to create the European Higher Education Area. The history of this process can be dated back to the Magna Charta Universitatum in 1988.
The Magna Charta Universitatum was signed by 388 Rectors of universities all over the world. They gathered in Bologna, Italy in 1988 to celebrate the ninth centenary of the University of Bologna that is the oldest university in Europe. In the Magna Charta Universitatum, it was stated that “universities must give future generations education and training”, “to respect the great harmonies of their natural environment”. It declared that “the university is an autonomous institution”, and
“teaching and research must be inseparable”. In order to attain these goals, it was stated that the universities must “preserve freedom in research and teaching”.
Universities must “exchange information and documentation, and frequent joint
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general policy of equivalent status, titles, examinations (without prejudices to national diplomas)”. This can be taken as a first step for the integration of higher education worldwide.
Following the Magna Charta Universitatum, The Lisbon Recognition Convention was signed in 1997. The Lisbon Recognition Convention is an international convention signed by 47 states, who are the members of the Council of Europe, in Lisbon, Portugal. This convention stipulates that degrees and periods of study are recognized if no substantial differences can be proved. A committee and a network were created to promote the application and implementation of this convention. This is one further step to integrate the higher education system in Europe by making academic degree and quality assurance standards. Non-members of the Council of Europe such as Australia, Canada and USA also signed this convention.
We can hence consider it as a milestone for the globalization of higher education. In year 1998, the education ministers of France, Germany, Italy and United Kingdom signed the Sorbonne Declaration in Paris to commit that they will harmonize the architecture of the European Higher Education System.
In 1999, 29 Ministers of Education from European countries signed the Bologna Declaration at the University of Bologna, Italy. The basic framework of the Bologna Process is the adoption of three cycles of higher education qualification. The three cycles include: (1) First cycle, awarding a Bachelor’s degree with typically 180-240 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation Systems (ECTS), usually in 3 years. (2) Second cycle, awarding a Master’s degree with typically 90-120 ECTS, usually in 2 years. (3) Third cycle, awarding a Doctoral degree without ECTS range, usually in 3 years. The new system gives greater emphasis on practical training and research
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projects. The new evaluation method also attaches importance to the lab skills, presentations and innovation capabilities of students.
There are substantial changes of the higher education systems in European countries after the Bologna Process. Taking Austria as an example, its original system was similar to that in Germany with the lowest degree (Magister or Diplom-Ingenieur) that needed 4 to 6 years. From year 2000, its higher education system was converted to separate bachelor (3 years), master (1.5 to 2 years) and doctoral degree (2 to 3 years). In Germany, the old professional (non-academic) degree courses are declining, and will be replaced by the new degree system in year 2010. Fig. 2.1 illustrates the European Higher Education Area, and the involvement in the three-level status in 2007 (Bologna with Student Eyes, 2007).
Fig. 2-1 Involvement of three-level higher education in Europe
The aim of the Bologna Process is the creation of a European Higher Education
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Area. The advantages include: (1) to facilitate mobility of students, graduates and staff. (2) to prepare students for their future career. (3) to offer access to high quality higher education based on its democratic principle. As listed in the Bologna Declaration (June 19, 1999), it offers “a key way to promote citizens’ mobility and employability”. It looks “the objective of increasing international competitiveness”, and “acquires a world-wide degree of attraction”.
The Bologna Process is an intergovernmental agreement for higher education in Europe. It is not a treaty or convention, and the participation is totally voluntary. It changes the traditional Germany education system with clear difference of vocational and academic training to the American-like system. There also existed criticism about the Bologna Process. It is argued that the development of such process is similar to the economic treaties like WTO and GATS (Wikipedia Bologna Process). The students’ workload will increase with their sacrifice of extracurricular activities, life experiences and personal networks.
2.1-2 Effects of the Bologna Process
The introduction to the Bologna Process has been published in Chinese by Prof.
Yang (2007a). The author stated that the European Union (EU) has promoted the quality control of higher education. The European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) has been established in 2004. In year 2006-2007, two thirds of states in the Bologna Process have at least one independent quality assurance organization. Almost all of these organizations have internal and external evaluation functions. Prof. Yang (2007b) also presented that several declaration and communiqués have been signed after the Bologna Declaration. For example, there are the Prague Declaration in 2001, The Berlin Communiqué in 2003, the Bergen
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Communiqué in 2005, and the London Communiqué in 2007. These meetings continue to operate the stocktaking for the members in the Bologna Process. It is concluded that learning from the Bologna Process, Taiwan should also establish a quality assurance system to meet up the trend of globalization Fig. 2.2 shows the 2009 stocktaking report of the Bologna Process in Europe by considering three indicators:
implementation of the first and second cycle system, access to the next cycle, and the establishment of national qualification framework (Bologna Process stocktaking report 2009). It is observed that most European countries have participated in the integrated degree system, but there is still a large space to establish the quality control mechanism.
Fig. 2.2 Number and percentage of countries for the three indicators in the degree system of the Bologna Process
One recent paper (Konjic and Sarajlic, 2007) from the Electrical Engineering
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Department in Bosnia discussed the process that changed from the traditional education system to meet the requirements of the Bologna Process. Its faculty has started the undergraduate program from 2003/2004 that is in complete accordance with the Bologna Declaration. It spent two years hard work on the revision, preparation and adjustment of its undergraduate curriculum to meet the European Standards and establish its ECTS (European Credits Transfer and Accumulation System) system. The author stated that this technical sciences university of 14,000 undergraduates and 1500 postgraduate students will fully apply the Bologna Declaration in year 2010. It will also adopt the international accreditation and verification of the teaching process. The university has endeavored to cooperate with foreign institutions on the following items: (1) transfer of knowledge, (2) participation of international projects, (3) mobility of students and teaching staff. For example, this university has worked together with Netherlands to form a Summer University. This initiated a good environment for students in the Eastern Europe and further regions.
Konjic and Sarajlic (2007) listed an example for the undergraduate and graduate course structures of Power Engineering (a sub-course in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering) that are in accordance with ECTS. The structure presented a 4+1 scheme leading to a Master degree. The first two years are common courses for all sub-regions in Electrical Engineering. Each semester of the first two years has 30 credits (obligatory plus additional credits) including lectures, seminar exercises and practical exercises. The third and fourth years are specific courses for the sub-area, also with 30 credits per semester. Table 2.2 lists an example of the fourth year undergraduate program.
Even for the fourth year of the undergraduate program, there are still 30 credits
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for both semesters. Many courses have seminar and practical exercises. The list of courses in Table 2.2 gives a warning message to the present system in Taiwan. We have much less obligatory courses in the senior year for all universities. This may result in insufficient graduate attributes in comparison to the European system. Konjic and Sarajlic (2007) expressed that their post graduate study has been changed to one year that included 30 credits of coursed with ECTS and 30 credits for the preparation of Master’s thesis. This is a reform from the old system that consisted of 2 years of lectures plus 1 to 3 years for passing exams and preparing a Master’s thesis.
Table 2.2 A typical fourth year undergraduate program under Bologna Process
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Konjic and Sarajlic (2007) stated that the new postgraduate system has been cooperated with European partners. The financial support from European Union provided professors and students with mobility, especially important for the weak regional partners. The University of Tuzla has a Quality Implementation Steering Committee to monitor and evaluate the quality of postgraduate studies. There are five members in this committee including two from European Union (Greece and Portugal) and the other three from regional partner institutions.
Konjic and Sarajlic (2007) stated that there existed weakness for the universities to fit into the Bologna process, “the absence of state law on higher education makes things very difficult”. This should be the same situation for all countries that are adopting the globalization systems.
The Bologna Process is also the European Union’s challenge for the globalized world, as presented by Contractor (2009). It offers a competition to China, India, United States and Australia both academically and financially. Under the common structure of higher education and comparable degree, the Bologna Process could attract overseas students and provide mobility of teachers and students.
Contractor (2009) stated that the Bologna Process is, however, an enormous task.
Each institution will protect its “back yard”. There are also four major critical issues as stated by the author for the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) to become a reality: (1) immigration laws, (2) inflexible curriculum, (3) insufficient financial incentives, (4) rigid pension arrangements. Although the EHEA is expected to be completed in 2010, the author expressed that “leaps of faith are not easy”, and there is a long road to Bologna.
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Students in Europe, for example in Barcelona, Spain, had demonstrations for anti-Bologna. They are against the process for the privatization of universities, and the devaluation of degrees. Paul Bennett, a vice-president of the Pan-European structure of Educational International stated that other regional relationships will follow the Bologna Process. The Bologna Process posed a threat to US and developing Asia.
This is what Bennett said: “higher education systems elsewhere are responding”.