1. INTRODUCTION
1.4 Research motivation
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in this case, may give an indication of the future of this phenomenon in the future Taiwanese society.
1.4 Research motivation
Despite the adverse effects on health, the use of skin whitening products has been increasing amongst modernized and cosmopolitan Asian women. In the Middle-East and other parts of Asia, consumers still purchase skin whitening creams containing mercury and other harmful ingredients, despite the obvious health risks. This study aims to identify the popular discourses and practices of color amongst Taiwanese women. Once this was understood, this research moves onto exploring the cultural normalization of the skin-whitening phenomenon in the context of Taiwanese women.
Specifically, the examination of the norms of whiteness across different ethnic groups in Taiwan.
This study will focus on the different ideas of skin colors across ethnic groups because perceptions about skin colors are often intertwined with racial and ethnic boundaries (Brown 2004).
Sociologists and anthropologists documented discrimination against darker-skinned persons and correlations between skin tone and socioeconomic status and achievement in Brazil and the United States (Hunter 2005, Sheriff 2001, Telles 2004). Other researchers revealed that judgments about other skin tone mainly presents darker-skinned individuals as less intelligent, trustworthy, and attractive than their lighter-skinned counterparts (Herring, Keith, and Horton 2003, Hunter 2005, Maddox 200). By exploring a deeper understanding of this phenomenon on a social aspect, the hope is that it will aid further studies and help to understand the strong social effects of the skin whitening phenomenon that has lasted for centuries.
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visualize and see our body image is generally understood as a mental projection of how our body appears to others. The image of ourselves that we usually present to the world is often images of who we would like to be rather than who we are. With modern technology, we are using beauty apps to alter our outer appearance, from skin and eye color, hair, and facial structures. Images are often used to summon up and crystallize utopian and exotic desires (Ewen, 1982). The consumer culture is obsessed with body image. There is a fixation with pictures of beautiful bodies of perfect-looking people in the media. Celebrities are living the good life, portraying a very luxurious lifestyle to entice consumers into longing and purchasing products. By doing so, they uphold a particular image or status. The relationship between images, advertising, and desire with the rise of consumer culture is showcased from as early as the 19th-century. (the chromolithograph images reproduced in magazines, handbills, packaging, etc. Which brings distant things to hand has been well noted (Ewen, 1982).Transformation central themes of consumer culture are the ‘before-and-after’ of images.
The new photos are shown as ‘proof’ of the value of the money increase beauty. When, in fact, one can question about what was wrong with the first view of pictures in the first place. Skin whitening industries portray the images of women with a darker skin tone as a negative thing. This negative association sets the theme and creates “whiteness” as a supreme beauty idea above others.
Consumers are not only shown how to dress, or put on make-up, and style their hair to a standard, but also down to a specific skin color. The media and information technologies have altered the
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range of habitual perceptive and practical structures of Taiwanese people mindset in everyday operation (Matelski, 2011).
2.2 Standard ideal of beauty
The socially constructed ideal of beauty and attractiveness is not immune from the pervasive trend of globalization. “Before the global age, each culture had a unique standard of attractiveness that was taken from traditional views about beauty as well as the physical features of the people” (Yan & Kim Bissell, 2014). Nowadays, modern women are constantly bombarded by information in the mass media. Which transmits and reinforces values, norms, and ideas of fashion and beauty via images of perfect-looking models, movie stars, and female celebrities in a variety of media formats (Polivy & Herman, 2004). Mass media often portray attractive people as more desirable, credible, and inspirational (Solomon, Ashmore, & Longo, 1992). These beautiful people portrayed are unusually often or not white people or people whose image has been enhanced to appear whiter. This further established the notion of “whiteness” superiority and the standard of beauty.
The yearning for whiteness is evident in the wide spread and the continuously growing use of skin bleaching, not only in Asia but also around the globe. This may be a legacy of colonialism globalization of "white is right”, which especially impacts women. The pressure to conform to an ideal beauty standard which is driven by a global economy and a massive westernized media of culture is one that women across the globe face. (Isa. Kramer,2003) claimed that mass media saturation of women's magazine, containing desired images of beauty is similar to a 'cultural steamroller."
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Creating and reinforces a uniform look that is driven by a western-centric standard (Murray and Price, 2011). The manufacturing, advertising, and selling of skin whitening products have become a significant growing market for giant multinational corporations. The media continuously portray an image of a particular idealized beauty that has now been internalized by women and as created pressure for many women. This goes back to a time where early paintings of Western sailors showed cased the men with dark tanned skin, while Western women were shown as pale and white characters. In the 1920s and even after World War l and World War ll anything Western was regarded as more modern and more desirable (Wagatsuma 1967, Kinmonth 1981).
figure 4. Vogue India Addresses Kendall Jenner Cover
In advertising, visual images of female models on cover page stories were not as homogeneous. Culture emerged as a crucially influential factor in the portrayal of “ideal beauty”
when all magazines were considered but have failed in this aspect. The May 2017 cover of vogue
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issue celebrated the brand 10th year in India. In this issue, they featured a white American model Kendall Jenner instead of a native Indian model (see Figure 4). The release of the cover had several readers up in arms, and readers criticized the publication for choosing a non-Indian model to front the magazine cover. The issue was guest-edited, creative-directed, and photographed by Mario Testino who was Indian. The problem here is that it’s just not good enough that the only Indian linkage to the cover was that the photographer.
American owned magazine companies usually portray “ideal beauty” as sexy, healthy, and easy-going. In contrast to European magazines, where models are preferred to be neutral, indifferent, and distant from ordinary life. (Yan and Bissell, 2014). Some of these portrayals can be dangerous for “other countries” with a more reserved culture. As adopting a similar standard of beauty like the western world can at times be conflicted to the culture of more reserved countries.
Asian magazines have kept relative independent from western standards to some extent. This could be mainly due to the maturity of the fashion and beauty markets in Asia. Countries like Japan, Korea, and China are critical economic entities in the global market, and Japanese and Korean beauty-related products are exported worldwide along with the Asian standard of beauty (Yan &
Kim Bissell, 2014).
2.3 Historical ideas of beauty in East Asia
Whiteness ideals in Taiwan is linked to cultural globalization and has also been shaped in historical contexts. East Asia may hold one of the most widespread standing dominant beliefs that pale white skin indicates success and high status. This belief dates back to the ancient culture in China, where the notions of soft skin implied a tiny and fragile quality that was associated with beauty and the implication of higher social stature in the Chinese society (Pan, 2013). Probably
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because until about a decade ago, China was a strictly agrarian society with the vast majority of its large population working in the fields. Upper-class people stayed indoors, conducting business, and enjoying leisure.
They wear protected from the harsh UV ray of the sunlight, which means that people’s skin tone functioned as an indicator of social status and wealth within the Chinese empire. This is evident in paintings around these periods. It’s apparent to see the skin-tone distinction the Chinese made between commoners and the elite. One great example is the portrait of Empress Wu Zetian, the one, and only female to ever hold the Imperial Court’s throne (see Figure 5). In the paintings, her face is represented as pale as the white pearls that adorn her headdress (Pan, 2013).
Figure 5 Portrait of Empress Wu. Source: National Museum of Chinese History, comp., A Journey into China's Antiquity, vol. 3 (Beijing: Morning Glory Publishers, 1997), 50.
2.4 What whiteness means to Taiwanese women
In this area, I will discuss the meaning of "whiteness," white privilege, and real racism from my observation in Taiwan. Even today, "whiteness" or having white skin is considered an essential element in constructing female beauty in Asian cultures (LI et al., 2008). "White skin" has emerged
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as a central desideratum of consumer culture in affluent Asia. Scholars globally discuss whiteness within antiracist research through their self-reflection or awakening to privilege (Lan, 2011). The explicit nature of conversations about appearance, and in particular, skin tone, have consistently caught me off guard in Taiwan. Talking explicitly about one's appearance is to some extent, a taboo in many cultures, especially in the context of skin color. In Taiwan, there is a stark contrast here. "Beauty" is a ubiquitous casual subject of conversation. It Is a subject that is often linked or related, to skin tone. It seems to consume the thoughts of women and girls, as old as eighty and as young as eight years old. Many use apps like B612 and ulike, which effectively whiten their complexion, add blush to their cheeks, and redden their lips and even altering their facial structure (Introducing B612, 2019). The "paleness premium" is one that has stood the test of time. As far back as ancient China, where women strived for a "snow-white" complexion, by often using herbal remedies believed to lighten their skin. Some would turn to toxic metals, like lead mercury, which would kill the skin cells responsible for pigmentation. Leaving them with brighter complexions — and possibly also lead poisoning.
If you are racially white, you are privileged in Taiwan. White privilege is omnipresent in everyday life in Taiwan (Lan, 2011). Taiwanese residents rarely expressed prejudice toward white Western migrants. White Western migrants are warmly welcomed as ‘global talents’ and perceived as ‘superior others’ who can benefit the economic development and cultural enrichment of the country (Lan, 2011). White Western migrants usually receive special treatment concerning jobs and many other aspects. Although Taiwanese people are well aware of black Americans like Obama and Lebron James, it is hard for a black American to get into English teaching positions at times (Lan, 2011). It begins with the common misconception that all blacks in Taiwan are from non-English African countries. But indeed, Black people come from all parts of the world and
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represent a wide array of cultures. I have received many questions from interested Taiwanese people who have questioned why I was dark if I was from Ireland.
While I appreciate the question as it creates an opportunity to have a dialogue and educate many. It is evident that the notion that a darker or black person is likely coming from a non- English-speaking country. Not the only factor that stops Taiwanese from hiring workers. People coming from non-English speaking countries like France and Germany, Spain, and some South American countries are likely to get jobs quicker based on the color of their skin (Lan, 2011). The whiteness of their skin seems to hold more qualification than an actual native speaker with darker or black skin. I had personally experienced this. I was told before I took a job that Taiwanese parents may not be on board to see a black person teach their children English. The attachment to an image of white Westerners as ‘authentic native speaker’ has definitely got an underlying tone of white superiority because even though many white non-English native speakers find it easier to hold a position than the black native English speaker.
2.5 Effects of media images on individual perception and identification
Scholars have examined the role of physical attractiveness in personal perception, and they found that attractive individuals are evaluated more favorably (Miller, 1970). These individuals are seen as more desirable (Bersheid & Walster, 1972) and more successful in social interaction (Reis & Wheeler 1980). Although not a compelling study in this context, it is vital to justify the content. “Research on the effects of exposure to appearance-oriented content has consistently shown that it is damaging (Yan & Kim Bissell 2014). Girls and young women, in particular, are extremely influenced by mediated images showing skinny white female models. This may result
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whitening dangers, and depression to fit the global beauty standards.The pervasive “whiteness” ideal disseminated by mass media increases the pressure toward ideal-beauty uniformity. This issue reflects in the Asian women obsession with skin whitening via whitening cosmetics and even surgery to achieve lighter, flawless skin to reach these standards.
When asked to identify the ideal mental image of beauty, a large percentage Korean girl offered US celebrities as examples as well as describing an imaginary ideal which has mixed Asian and Western appearance, such as long straight hair, big eyes, and a high nose (Chung & Bissell, 2009).
The ‘white’ race was the ruler and the ’dark’ or ‘black’ natives when a large part of South Asia was governed by the British for around two centuries. This colonial legacy in South Asia brought about one of the contributory factors in the belief “White is powerful” and “White is beautiful.” In India, the words for fair and beautiful are synonymous (Franklin 1968, Hall 1995). In one aspect
“whiteness” and “paleness” can be very distinct but related concepts. They both signify a distinction between the historical myths of paleness which is associated with feminine discourses of beauty, and ‘whiteness’ as an imperialist, racialized value of superiority” (Goon & Craven 2003).
Cosmetic surgeries and skin lightening have been continuously utilized in Asia to provide a more western appearance (Kaw 1993, Miller 2003) to obtain the global appeal of western and caucasian standards of beauty (Goon &Craven 2003, Isa and Kramer 2003). A survey that was taken on Japanese men found that Japanese men valued white skin as a significant element in judging the beauty of Japanese women. They also associated it with femininity, innocence, purity, moral virtue, and motherhood (Murray & Price, 2011). When the Japanese ruled Taiwan, this ideology followed them into the country. It can be argued that this was the very beginning and introduction to the skin whitening culture that has flourished in Taiwanese society. Without
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question, one can say that there is an established academic field on Japanese beauty aesthetics and beauty culture that has similarities and practices. Especially to the Chinese beauty culture, which is very much influenced by the Japanese. Japanese imperialist changed in a capitalist economy where Western companies highly covet Taiwanese trade. Skin-whitening presents an illuminating case study of the way’s globalization and postcolonialism have “globalized” Culturally Chinese beauty culture.
6. Skincare products Korean boy band promoting skincare products Figure
Today we see Eastern and Western-based cosmetic industries changing their brands and advertisements and campaigns to adopt racial and ethnic markers which highlights these associations to appeal to customers. We see multinational cosmetic companies choosing to use only Caucasian models in their campaigns. They used darker models as a negative example of what the skin would look if the consumer does not purchase their products. The companies have become commodified in culturally Chinese advertisements at large to sell high-end luxury goods because of this historical fascination with the further distinct creation of “Otherness” and the
“exotic West beauty ideals” (Epan, 2013). The industry continually chooses to use specific East
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dominating percentages on the said country. It can be argued that in East Asians, many believe there is an implicit ethnic differentiation that impacts a group’s perceived attractiveness. The western is continuously always trying to influence that reinforces beauty standard of whitening product ads in the market, marketers try to use various approaches in grabbing potential buyers‟attention (Owhal, 2015).
The most effective way skin whitening advertising captures the focus of their targeted audience is by using soft colors to create attractiveness. This results in effectively impacting the consumers purchasing decision. The advertising industries have changed dramatically in recent years worldwide. Nowadays, they have become prominent with the many different media forms that are accessible to consumers of all ages. The advertising industries always attempt to follow consumers wherever they go. Especially with the existence of blogs, social media, and search engine optimization system. Which indirectly helps facilitate marketing and business activities (Bernama, 2014). As consumers, we are regularly exposed to thousands of ads and hampered companies in creating a unique position in creating consumer attention. Social media platforms such as Instagram and Facebook help companies to create personal ads and engender a positive effect on the attitude and sales intention towards the brand. By using these methods, the advertiser can create an engagement with potential online buyers as a repertoire to be connected as a part of their integrated marketing communications strategy.
2.6 Japan, China, and Korea influences
Historically East Asian societies have idealized light or even white skin for women. Japan has long and metaphorically idolized ivory-like skin to a boiled egg’—soft, referring to the white and
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smooth on the surface. The Meiji Period starting in the 1860s, higher social class of men and women wore white-lead powder makeup with blackened teeth and shaved eyebrows. Has time went on with modernization according to Mikiko Ashikari, makeup was eventually entirely abandoned by men. While middle- and upper-class women continued with wearing their traditional white-lead powder in formal kimonos dress or at any ceremonial occasions.
In 1996-1997 an observation of 777 women at several sites in Osaka that was conducted by Ashikari. Findings showed 97.4 percent of women in public wore what was called “white face,”
which in today’s term is referred to as “makeup” simply because they wore makeup that was way too white for their faces (Glenn, 2008).
A report showed that 66 percent of the total skincare product market for moisturizers, face masks, and skin lighteners were in Japan (Glenn, 2008). Till date, this is still very much apparent in the Japanese cosmetics industry. There are many examples in Japanese cosmetics displays were and skincare products that are shown that. Even products that are not explicitly stated to be whitening products carry names that contain the word "white," to promote whiteness and attract consumers. Facial masks products labeled "Clear Turn White" or "Pure White" are just some of much common product names in the cosmetics skincare industry.
A report showed that 66 percent of the total skincare product market for moisturizers, face masks, and skin lighteners were in Japan (Glenn, 2008). Till date, this is still very much apparent in the Japanese cosmetics industry. There are many examples in Japanese cosmetics displays were and skincare products that are shown that. Even products that are not explicitly stated to be whitening products carry names that contain the word "white," to promote whiteness and attract consumers. Facial masks products labeled "Clear Turn White" or "Pure White" are just some of much common product names in the cosmetics skincare industry.