台灣的皮膚美白現象 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學國際傳播英語碩士學位學程 International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies College of Communication National Chengchi University. 碩士論文. 政治大. 立Master’s Thesis. ‧ y. ‧ 國. 學. Nat. 台灣的皮膚美白現象. n. al. er. io. sit. Skin Whitening Phenomenon in Taiwan Student:COlaide Anjorin 安年蒙 n. hengchi U. iv. Advisor: Dr.Ting-Yu Kang 康庭瑜. 中華民國 108 年 9 月 September 2019. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(2) 台灣的皮膚美白現象 Skin Whitening Phenomenon in Taiwan. Student: Olaide Anjorin 安年蒙 Advisor: Dr.Ting-Yu Kang 康庭瑜. 學. ‧ 國. 立. 政治大國立政治大學. ‧. 國際傳播英語碩士學位學程碩士論文. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. eAnThesis gchi. i n U. v. Submitted to International Master’s Program in International Communication Studies National Chengchi University. In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement For the degree of Master of Arts. 中華民國 108年9月 September 2019 DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(3) ACKNOWLEGEMENT. My kindest gratitude will be to my advisor, professor Ting-yu Kang who patiently and consistently provided me with the help and assistance I required throughout my thesis process. Her dedication and the time she took to always take a meeting or a phone call is extremely appreciated. Prof Lui wanyi and prof Stanley Huang as my examiners who also aided me with a lot of constructive advice and took time out to examine my thesis. Thank you. I would also like to thank my good. 治政大 and encouragement. Finally, and kindness. Along with the staff of NCCU that gave me positivity 立 IMIC friends Brenna Davidson, Tomas Swinburne and Elaine Lui that provided me with support. I want to thank my beautiful family. Thank you.. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. i. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(4) ABSTRACT. Skin whitening products are commercially available and are easily used for cosmetic purposes to get a lighter skin complexion. Previous research studies on skin whitening phenomenon primarily focuses on the harmful health hazards of the ingredients in the skin whitening products. They also focus on the colonial racial aspect that still impacts societies globally. This study explores the cultural mind frame of women in Taiwanese society by examining the cultural normalization of. 治政大 society. embedded the process of skin whitening is in modern Taiwanese 立. the skin-whitening phenomena across different ethnic groups in Taiwan. Focusing on how deeply. ‧ 國. 學. Employing a qualitative research method in the form of in-depth interviews on elven Taiwanese. ‧. women from the different ethnicity groups on the Island. Using the theories of globalizing notions of beauty and cultural imperialism and employing the grounded theory and thematic analysis to. y. Nat. io. sit. code and break down the findings. Results of the analysis of the interviews illustrated that the skin. n. al. er. whitening phenomenon is one that here to stay, as many just don’t view it as a social issue in. Ch. i n U. v. Taiwan. Results showed that most people were unaware of the health risk that comes with using these whitening products.. engchi. Keywords: whitening; cosmetics; melanin; Ethnicity, Taiwanese. ii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(5) TABLE OF CONTENT Acknowledgement …………………………………………………………………..........i Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………ii Table of Contents………………………………………………………………….…..…..iii List of figures and Tables ……………………………………………………………..…..iv 1. INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………….....…..1 1.1 Research Background………………………………………………….………....…1. 治政大 1.3 Research importance…………..……………………………………………………7 立. 1.2 The science of skin whitening………………………………………………...….....3. 1.4 Research motivation………………………………………………………..…...…..8. ‧ 國. 學. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………..……............….9. ‧. 2.1 Consumer body culture…………………………………………...……......……...9 2.2 Standard ideal of beauty…………………………………………………....…..…10. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 2.3 Historical ideas of beauty in East Asia…………………………………….……...12 2.4 What whiteness means to Taiwanese women…………………………….........….13. al. n. iv n C 2.5 Effects of media images on individual and identification………....…15 h e nperception gchi U. 2.6 Japan, China, and Korea influences…………………………………......…....….18 3 METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………….………….21 3.1 Research questions……………………………………………….........................21 3.2 Data collection………………………………………………….………….…..…22 3.2.1. Grounded theory……………………………………………………….....22. 3.2.2. Thematic analysis………………………………………...………….…...23. 3.3 Data collection and sampling…………………………....…………………….…24 iii. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(6) 3.4 Cross- ethnic identity…………………………………………….…………….….24 3.4.1. Ethnic groups in Taiwan…………..…….……….....……............…...…...25. 3.4.2. Holko Han Chinese……………………………………………...……..….27. 3.4.3. Hakka Han Chinese………………………………………………….....….27. 3.4.4. Mainland Chinese…………………...………………………….….........…28. 3.4.5. Aboriginal Taiwanese………………………………………. …....…….....29. 3.4.6. New immigrants………………………….…………………………...……30. 治政大 3.5.1 Interview process and guidelines…………………………………………..……...33 立 3.5.2 Data analysis………………………………………………………………………33 3.5 Sampling frame…………………………..……………………….………..….…….30. ‧ 國. 學. 3.5.3 Coding……………………………………………………………………………. 34. ‧. 4. Results……………………………………………………………………………...…...35 4.1 Colorism: The Hierarchical Nature of Skin Tone…………………….....………….…35. y. Nat. io. sit. 4.2 Othering and ethnicity……………………………………………………..……...…...39. n. al. er. 4.3 Perception of whiteness in the Taiwanese society………………………………...…43. Ch. i n U. v. 4.4 White signifying cleanness……………………………………………….……..….….43. engchi. 4.5 Contradicting Practice……………….……………………………………….…..……44 4.6 Society influence………………………………………………………………....……45 4.7 The role of cross-border cultural flows………………………...…………...…...…….49 4.8 Changing attitudes…………………………………………………………...….……..51. iv. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(7) 5. CONCLUSION 5.1 Introduction ………..………………………………………………………….53 5.2 Meaning of whiteness and its association…………………………..........……55 5.3 Gender influences……………………………………………………………...56 5.4 Limitations…………………………………………………………………..…58 Reference…………………………………………………………………………….…….62. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. v. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(8) LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES. FIGURES Figure 1. French advertising poster for Dirt off…………………………………………………1 Figure 2. Enlarged plate sample of skin tissue layers……………………………………...……4 Figure 3. Michael Jackson before and after his transformation……………………………...….6 Figure 4. Vogue India Addresses Kendall Jenner Cover……………………………………....12. 治政大 Figure 6. Skincare products Korean……………………………………………………………………19 立. Figure 5. Figure 5 Portrait of Empress Wu. Source……………………..………….………….14. Figure 7. Taiwan ethnic mix………………………………………………...…………………27. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. TABLES. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. sit. Table 1. Participants …………………………………………………………………………...33. Appendix. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Appendix 1……………………………………………………………………………………...62. vi. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(9) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research Background Colorism is one of the negative inheritances of European colonialism in many parts of the world. The ideology of white supremacy that European colonists brought included the association of blackness with primitiveness, lack of civilization, unrestrained sexuality, pollution, and dirt (Webb, 2013). The association of darkness with dirt can be seen in a 1930 French. 政治大. advertising poster for Dirt off (see Figure 1).. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 1. 1930 French advertising poster for Dirt off. (Phillip Dexter). Similarly, Taiwan has been greatly influenced by Japanese and the Chinese who colonized the country back in the 19th century. Some of the ideology and practices from those times are still very prevalent today (See figure one).. 1. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(10) Coming from Ireland, I found Taiwan is quite different. People in Ireland go to great lengths to obtain a bronze look. “Fake tan” is used over the skin to appear darker. People travel across the ocean to lay on beaches, covering themselves in tanning oils to absorb the sun rays. Many expose themselves to the dangers of sun bedding— ignoring researchers’ warnings that links UV rays to skin cancer. Growing up in Ireland as a black woman in an environment where darker skin was embraced and demanded, Taiwan presented quite a different experience. I met locals that would complement my brown skin. I also received stares from strangers on the MRT on a daily basis.. 治政大skin whitening products. Oblivious skin was now lighter than usual and asked if I was using any 立 After a few months passed, in a conversation with my parents, they mentioned that my dark. to the Taiwanese trend of skin whitening, I was baffled when I examined the skincare labels of. ‧ 國. 學. the products I had purchased. Most of the products contained skin whitening ingredients. It is. ‧. also shocking to see that even products without skin whitening ingredients would occasionally insinuate and glorify whiteness to increase sales on the labels. I was suddenly in a world with a. y. Nat. io. sit. different type of beauty ideal. which had captivated the Asian market. I discovered that in Taiwan,. n. al. er. “whiteness” remains an essential element in contemporary postcolonial Asian understandings of. Ch. i n U. v. beauty and became a commodity in the marketplace (Goon & Craven 2003). Women are. engchi. persistently protecting themselves from any elements that would result in the darkening of their skin from the sun. I remember a beautiful sunny day in Taiwan when all I saw was a sea of people with umbrellas. It was a different experience to see people using umbrellas in the sun. With the use of UV300 protection, women wearing gloves in the summer, to the billion-dollar skin whitening industry that is providing products with harmful ingredients to Asian women. Taiwanese women, unlike Irish women, are going to great lengths to obtain a lighter complexion. Many studies investigated the health aspect of skin lightening products. They warn about the. 2. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(11) dangers of hazardous ingredients like mercury and hydroquinone. These ingredients are frequently added to many of the skin whitening products that are available on the market. However, few researchers have explored the cultural aspects of this trend in Taiwan. Traditionally a whiter skin tone has been associated with higher social status, wealth and beauty in Asia. The increase in skin-whitening practices around the world, especially in Asia, is a result of the merging between the old ideologies of colonialism, race, class, and new technologies (Hunter, 2005).. 治政 background, they are thought of as people who do not have大 to work outside in the fields. people 立 Asian women with lighter complexions are perceived by society to be from an higher social. who are not subjected to the sun’s harsh rays. Today, modern East Asian women are constantly. ‧ 國. 學. bombarded with countless skin whitening products and marketing campaigns. Nearly all facial. ‧. and body lotions sold in China and Taiwan contain chemicals that whitens the skin. As such, I felt it would be worthwhile to explore the cultural aspect of skin whitening in Taiwan.. er. io. sit. y. Nat 1.2 The science of skin whitening. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Huma skin contains, melanocytes, which is a melanin-producing neural that is responsible. engchi. for the dark skin color. which can be found on the basal layer which separates the dermis and the epidermis. Around 36 keratinocytes surround the melanocyte (Walker et al., 2009). Together they form what is known as the epidermal melanin unit which then produce and stored melanin inside the melanocyte. Then the melanin moves the overlaying keratinocytes. The melanin pigments are a polymer which is generated inside the melanosomes and synthesized from the amino acid Ltyrosine that is open access (Walker et al., 2009). Then they are converted by the enzyme tyrosinase to dopaquinone. This reaction continues spontaneously via dopachrome to the. 3. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(12) monomeric diindolic precursors (5,6-dihydroxyindole and 5,6-dihydroxyindole 2-carboxylic acid) of the black-brown pigment eumelanin. Furthermore, some other enzymes, like the tyrosinase are related proteins (TRP-1 and dopachrome tautomerase (TRP-2) may play a vital role in melanogenesis in vivo (C Olivares, 2019) (see Figure 2).. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. i n U. v. Figure 2. Enlarged plate sample of skin tissue layers (Source: Ronald A. Bergman, Ph.D., Adel). engchi. After reacting with the cysteine, dopaquinone forms 2- or 5-S-cysteinyldopa that generates the benzothiazine precursors of the red/yellow pheomelanin polymer (Olivares, 2019). In general, a mixed type of pheon- and eumelanin polymer is made and placed into the melanosome matrix proteins. Considering the many color variations that can be seen in the skin and hair, it can be expected that the composition of the mixed melanin is regulated in many ways (Olivares, 2019). However, altered production of cutaneous melanin may cause considerable problems of esthetic nature, especially in hyper pigmentary conditions, like melasma, post-inflammatory 4. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(13) hyperpigmentation, freckles or lentigines. But also depigmenting conditions, like vitiligo, have a high impact on the quality of life of the patients (Santiago-Walker et al., 2009). “White skin” has emerged as a central desideratum of consumer culture in affluent Asia. Scholars talk about whiteness within anti-racist research through their self-reflection or awakening to privilege. “Whiteness” or having white skin is considered an important element in constructing female beauty in Asian cultures (LI et al, 2008). Throughout Asia, pale skin has been considered as social markers of aristocratic lineage and class allegiance. “Dark skin is associated with labor and field. 政治大. work in the Sun.1 ‘White’ skin has a colonial notion of power and superiority” (Shankar and Subish, 2007).. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Fig 3. Michael Jackson before and after his transformation.. “It doesn’t matter if you are black or white.” This line is probably one of Michael Jackson’s most famous musical lines. The late musical genius claimed to have suffered from vitiligo, a skin disease 5. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(14) that causes depigmentation, resulting in patches of pure white skin. However, many believe that the musician purposefully underwent procedures to turn his skin from a darker brown to milky white to conform to individual perception of the ideal beauty standard in the U.S. (see Figure 3). This concept of skin lightening, while apparent in the U.S. and this example in a male figure, is quite uncommon in comparisons to lightened skin lightening phenomenon in many Asian countries. Physical appearance tends to be a more critical status characteristic for women, rather than for men; although this expectation is becoming increasingly more important (Banner 1983,. 治政 women, whiter skin color is associated with the definitions 大 of beauty. The relationship between 立. Ferguson 1985, Luciano 2001). Globally we see this impacting woman more often than men. For. skin color and beauty is significant for women because beauty is a form of social capital. Skin-. ‧ 國. 學. whitening is the practice of using artificially created chemical substances to physically lighten. ‧. one’s skin tone by reducing the concentration of the primary determinant of skin color, melanin (Pan, 2014). It involves a cosmetic procedure that is aimed to lighten dark areas of skin to achieve. y. Nat. io. sit. a paler milkier skin tone. The brown-black pigments are found in melanocytes, skin cells located. n. al. er. on the bottom layer of the skin’s epidermis. The dyes are from tyrosine, an amino acid that plays. Ch. i n U. v. a massive role in the photosynthesis process to convert light energy into chemical energy for use. engchi. within the body. Differences in skin color are due to the melanocyte’s activity levels, which are regulated by the body’s hormones.” The melanocytes in the epidermis are responsible for the intensity of skin color (Webb, 2013). The number of melanocytes is the same in both fair and dark-skinned people. The amount of melanin produced by the melanocytes is partly determined by genetics and by the environment in which one is raised in (Pan, 2013). There are a few common active ingredients found in skinwhitening products. Hydroquinone and kojic acid and even harmful levels of mercury are infused. 6. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(15) in the cream. These chemical compounds lighten the skin by prohibiting melanocyte activity. Much global beauty care and cosmetics companies outsource their chemical compound manufacturing processes to third-party contractors in China and East Asia, and these include the production of both hydroquinone and kojic acid for skin-whitening creams; which have been strongly warned against. Nevertheless, the skincare industry is still a billion-dollar industry that is still very much thriving. Due to the result of severe health effects, medical researchers have conducted interview. 治政大 and these researches have the medical and health aspect of the skin whitening phenomenon, 立. studies to determine how prevalent the practice of skin lightening is. Previous research focused on. highlighted concerns about many skin whitening products which are not categorized as a. ‧ 國. 學. pharmaceutical product, but some of the ingredients are very questionable. This research identified. ‧. the dangers of harsh chemicals in the bleaching products, notably, mercury (Hg), hydroquinone, and steroids. These chemicals are associated with a variety of adverse health effects, such as Hg. y. Nat. n. er. io. al. 1.3 Research importance. sit. poisoning and exogenous ochronosis (Weldon, 2000).. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. This research explores the skin whitening phenomenon in Taiwan. First, in-depth interviews will be conducted to find out what are the popular discourses and practices in terms of skin color amongst women in the Taiwanese society. Once this is complete, grounded theory and thematic analysis were adopted to systematically organize, identify, and give insights into the patterns of recurring themes across the data collected. This research also provided findings on how women in Taiwanese society view the skin whitening phenomenon in the current social climate. The results,. 7. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(16) in this case, may give an indication of the future of this phenomenon in the future Taiwanese society.. 1.4 Research motivation Despite the adverse effects on health, the use of skin whitening products has been increasing amongst modernized and cosmopolitan Asian women. In the Middle-East and other parts of Asia, consumers still purchase skin whitening creams containing mercury and other harmful ingredients,. 治政大this research moves onto exploring of color amongst Taiwanese women. Once this was understood, 立 despite the obvious health risks. This study aims to identify the popular discourses and practices. the cultural normalization of the skin-whitening phenomenon in the context of Taiwanese women.. ‧ 國. 學. Specifically, the examination of the norms of whiteness across different ethnic groups in Taiwan.. ‧. This study will focus on the different ideas of skin colors across ethnic groups because perceptions about skin colors are often intertwined with racial and ethnic boundaries (Brown 2004).. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Sociologists and anthropologists documented discrimination against darker-skinned persons and correlations between skin tone and socioeconomic status and achievement in Brazil and the. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. United States (Hunter 2005, Sheriff 2001, Telles 2004). Other researchers revealed that judgments. engchi. about other skin tone mainly presents darker-skinned individuals as less intelligent, trustworthy, and attractive than their lighter-skinned counterparts (Herring, Keith, and Horton 2003, Hunter 2005, Maddox 200). By exploring a deeper understanding of this phenomenon on a social aspect, the hope is that it will aid further studies and help to understand the strong social effects of the skin whitening phenomenon that has lasted for centuries.. 8. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(17) CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Body in consumer culture There is a strong relationship between body image and consumer culture. The way we visualize and see our body image is generally understood as a mental projection of how our body appears to others. The image of ourselves that we usually present to the world is often images of who we would like to be rather than who we are. With modern technology, we are using beauty. 治政 often used to summon up and crystallize utopian and exotic 大 desires (Ewen, 1982). The consumer 立 apps to alter our outer appearance, from skin and eye color, hair, and facial structures. Images are. culture is obsessed with body image. There is a fixation with pictures of beautiful bodies of perfect-. ‧ 國. 學. looking people in the media. Celebrities are living the good life, portraying a very luxurious. ‧. lifestyle to entice consumers into longing and purchasing products. By doing so, they uphold a particular image or status. The relationship between images, advertising, and desire with the rise. y. Nat. er. io. sit. of consumer culture is showcased from as early as the 19th-century. (the chromolithograph images reproduced in magazines, handbills, packaging, etc. Which brings distant things to hand has been. n. al. well noted (Ewen, 1982).. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Transformation central themes of consumer culture are the ‘before-and-after’ of images. The new photos are shown as ‘proof’ of the value of the money increase beauty. When, in fact, one can question about what was wrong with the first view of pictures in the first place. Skin whitening industries portray the images of women with a darker skin tone as a negative thing. This negative association sets the theme and creates “whiteness” as a supreme beauty idea above others. Consumers are not only shown how to dress, or put on make-up, and style their hair to a standard, but also down to a specific skin color. The media and information technologies have altered the. 9. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(18) range of habitual perceptive and practical structures of Taiwanese people mindset in everyday operation (Matelski, 2011).. 2.2 Standard ideal of beauty The socially constructed ideal of beauty and attractiveness is not immune from the pervasive trend of globalization. “Before the global age, each culture had a unique standard of attractiveness that was taken from traditional views about beauty as well as the physical features. 治政大 values, norms, and ideas of by information in the mass media. Which transmits and reinforces 立. of the people” (Yan & Kim Bissell, 2014). Nowadays, modern women are constantly bombarded. fashion and beauty via images of perfect-looking models, movie stars, and female celebrities in a. ‧ 國. 學. variety of media formats (Polivy & Herman, 2004). Mass media often portray attractive people as. ‧. more desirable, credible, and inspirational (Solomon, Ashmore, & Longo, 1992). These beautiful people portrayed are unusually often or not white people or people whose image has been enhanced. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. beauty.. sit. to appear whiter. This further established the notion of “whiteness” superiority and the standard of. Ch. i n U. v. The yearning for whiteness is evident in the wide spread and the continuously growing use. engchi. of skin bleaching, not only in Asia but also around the globe. This may be a legacy of colonialism globalization of "white is right”, which especially impacts women. The pressure to conform to an ideal beauty standard which is driven by a global economy and a massive westernized media of culture is one that women across the globe face. (Isa. Kramer,2003) claimed that mass media saturation of women's magazine, containing desired images of beauty is similar to a 'cultural steamroller.". 10. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(19) Creating and reinforces a uniform look that is driven by a western-centric standard (Murray and Price, 2011). The manufacturing, advertising, and selling of skin whitening products have become a significant growing market for giant multinational corporations. The media continuously portray an image of a particular idealized beauty that has now been internalized by women and as created pressure for many women. This goes back to a time where early paintings of Western sailors showed cased the men with dark tanned skin, while Western women were shown as pale and white characters. In the 1920s and even after World War l and World War ll anything Western. 政治大. was regarded as more modern and more desirable (Wagatsuma 1967, Kinmonth 1981).. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. figure 4. Vogue India Addresses Kendall Jenner Cover. In advertising, visual images of female models on cover page stories were not as homogeneous. Culture emerged as a crucially influential factor in the portrayal of “ideal beauty” when all magazines were considered but have failed in this aspect. The May 2017 cover of vogue. 11. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(20) issue celebrated the brand 10th year in India. In this issue, they featured a white American model Kendall Jenner instead of a native Indian model (see Figure 4). The release of the cover had several readers up in arms, and readers criticized the publication for choosing a non-Indian model to front the magazine cover. The issue was guest-edited, creative-directed, and photographed by Mario Testino who was Indian. The problem here is that it’s just not good enough that the only Indian linkage to the cover was that the photographer. American owned magazine companies usually portray “ideal beauty” as sexy, healthy, and. 治政 indifferent, and distant from ordinary life. (Yan and Bissell, 大 2014). Some of these portrayals can 立. easy-going. In contrast to European magazines, where models are preferred to be neutral,. be dangerous for “other countries” with a more reserved culture. As adopting a similar standard of. ‧ 國. 學. beauty like the western world can at times be conflicted to the culture of more reserved countries.. ‧. Asian magazines have kept relative independent from western standards to some extent. This could be mainly due to the maturity of the fashion and beauty markets in Asia. Countries like Japan,. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Korea, and China are critical economic entities in the global market, and Japanese and Korean beauty-related products are exported worldwide along with the Asian standard of beauty (Yan &. n. al. Kim Bissell, 2014).. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 2.3 Historical ideas of beauty in East Asia Whiteness ideals in Taiwan is linked to cultural globalization and has also been shaped in historical contexts. East Asia may hold one of the most widespread standing dominant beliefs that pale white skin indicates success and high status. This belief dates back to the ancient culture in China, where the notions of soft skin implied a tiny and fragile quality that was associated with beauty and the implication of higher social stature in the Chinese society (Pan, 2013). Probably. 12. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(21) because until about a decade ago, China was a strictly agrarian society with the vast majority of its large population working in the fields. Upper-class people stayed indoors, conducting business, and enjoying leisure. They wear protected from the harsh UV ray of the sunlight, which means that people’s skin tone functioned as an indicator of social status and wealth within the Chinese empire. This is evident in paintings around these periods. It’s apparent to see the skin-tone distinction the Chinese made between commoners and the elite. One great example is the portrait of Empress Wu Zetian,. 治政大headdress (Pan, 2013). her face is represented as pale as the white pearls that adorn her 立. the one, and only female to ever hold the Imperial Court’s throne (see Figure 5). In the paintings,. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Figure 5 Portrait of Empress Wu. Source: National Museum of Chinese History, comp., A Journey into China's Antiquity, vol. 3 (Beijing: Morning Glory Publishers, 1997), 50.. 2.4 What whiteness means to Taiwanese women In this area, I will discuss the meaning of "whiteness," white privilege, and real racism from my observation in Taiwan. Even today, "whiteness" or having white skin is considered an essential element in constructing female beauty in Asian cultures (LI et al., 2008). "White skin" has emerged 13. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(22) as a central desideratum of consumer culture in affluent Asia. Scholars globally discuss whiteness within antiracist research through their self-reflection or awakening to privilege (Lan, 2011). The explicit nature of conversations about appearance, and in particular, skin tone, have consistently caught me off guard in Taiwan. Talking explicitly about one's appearance is to some extent, a taboo in many cultures, especially in the context of skin color. In Taiwan, there is a stark contrast here. "Beauty" is a ubiquitous casual subject of conversation. It Is a subject that is often linked or related, to skin tone. It seems to consume the thoughts of women and girls, as old as eighty and as. 治政大even altering their facial structure complexion, add blush to their cheeks, and redden their lips and 立. young as eight years old. Many use apps like B612 and ulike, which effectively whiten their. (Introducing B612, 2019). The "paleness premium" is one that has stood the test of time. As far. ‧ 國. 學. back as ancient China, where women strived for a "snow-white" complexion, by often using herbal. ‧. remedies believed to lighten their skin. Some would turn to toxic metals, like lead mercury, which would kill the skin cells responsible for pigmentation. Leaving them with brighter complexions —. y. Nat. er. io. sit. and possibly also lead poisoning.. If you are racially white, you are privileged in Taiwan. White privilege is omnipresent in. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. everyday life in Taiwan (Lan, 2011). Taiwanese residents rarely expressed prejudice toward white. engchi. Western migrants. White Western migrants are warmly welcomed as ‘global talents’ and perceived as ‘superior others’ who can benefit the economic development and cultural enrichment of the country (Lan, 2011). White Western migrants usually receive special treatment concerning jobs and many other aspects. Although Taiwanese people are well aware of black Americans like Obama and Lebron James, it is hard for a black American to get into English teaching positions at times (Lan, 2011). It begins with the common misconception that all blacks in Taiwan are from non-English African countries. But indeed, Black people come from all parts of the world and. 14. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(23) represent a wide array of cultures. I have received many questions from interested Taiwanese people who have questioned why I was dark if I was from Ireland. While I appreciate the question as it creates an opportunity to have a dialogue and educate many. It is evident that the notion that a darker or black person is likely coming from a nonEnglish-speaking country. Not the only factor that stops Taiwanese from hiring workers. People coming from non-English speaking countries like France and Germany, Spain, and some South American countries are likely to get jobs quicker based on the color of their skin (Lan, 2011). The. 治政 or black skin. I had personally experienced this. I was told大 before I took a job that Taiwanese 立 whiteness of their skin seems to hold more qualification than an actual native speaker with darker. parents may not be on board to see a black person teach their children English. The attachment to. ‧ 國. 學. an image of white Westerners as ‘authentic native speaker’ has definitely got an underlying tone. ‧. of white superiority because even though many white non-English native speakers find it easier to hold a position than the black native English speaker.. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 2.5 Effects of media images on individual perception and identification. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Scholars have examined the role of physical attractiveness in personal perception, and they. engchi. found that attractive individuals are evaluated more favorably (Miller, 1970). These individuals are seen as more desirable (Bersheid & Walster, 1972) and more successful in social interaction (Reis & Wheeler 1980). Although not a compelling study in this context, it is vital to justify the content. “Research on the effects of exposure to appearance-oriented content has consistently shown that it is damaging (Yan & Kim Bissell 2014). Girls and young women, in particular, are extremely influenced by mediated images showing skinny white female models. This may result. 15. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(24) in a destructive path filled with low self-esteem, body image dissatisfaction, anorexia, skin whitening dangers, and depression to fit the global beauty standards. The pervasive “whiteness” ideal disseminated by mass media increases the pressure toward ideal-beauty uniformity. This issue reflects in the Asian women obsession with skin whitening via whitening cosmetics and even surgery to achieve lighter, flawless skin to reach these standards. When asked to identify the ideal mental image of beauty, a large percentage Korean girl offered US celebrities as examples as well as describing an imaginary ideal which has mixed Asian and. 治政大 when a large part of South Asia The ‘white’ race was the ruler and the ’dark’ or ‘black’ natives 立. Western appearance, such as long straight hair, big eyes, and a high nose (Chung & Bissell, 2009).. was governed by the British for around two centuries. This colonial legacy in South Asia brought. ‧ 國. 學. about one of the contributory factors in the belief “White is powerful” and “White is beautiful.” In. ‧. India, the words for fair and beautiful are synonymous (Franklin 1968, Hall 1995). In one aspect “whiteness” and “paleness” can be very distinct but related concepts. They both signify a. y. Nat. io. sit. distinction between the historical myths of paleness which is associated with feminine discourses. n. al. er. of beauty, and ‘whiteness’ as an imperialist, racialized value of superiority” (Goon & Craven 2003).. Ch. i n U. v. Cosmetic surgeries and skin lightening have been continuously utilized in Asia to provide a. engchi. more western appearance (Kaw 1993, Miller 2003) to obtain the global appeal of western and caucasian standards of beauty (Goon &Craven 2003, Isa and Kramer 2003). A survey that was taken on Japanese men found that Japanese men valued white skin as a significant element in judging the beauty of Japanese women. They also associated it with femininity, innocence, purity, moral virtue, and motherhood (Murray & Price, 2011). When the Japanese ruled Taiwan, this ideology followed them into the country. It can be argued that this was the very beginning and introduction to the skin whitening culture that has flourished in Taiwanese society. Without. 16. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(25) question, one can say that there is an established academic field on Japanese beauty aesthetics and beauty culture that has similarities and practices. Especially to the Chinese beauty culture, which is very much influenced by the Japanese. Japanese imperialist changed in a capitalist economy where Western companies highly covet Taiwanese trade. Skin-whitening presents an illuminating case study of the way’s globalization and postcolonialism have “globalized” Culturally Chinese beauty culture.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學 er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. iv n C Western-based industries h e ncosmetic gchi U. n. 6. Skincare products Korean boy band promoting skincare products Figure. Today we see Eastern and. changing their brands and. advertisements and campaigns to adopt racial and ethnic markers which highlights these associations to appeal to customers. We see multinational cosmetic companies choosing to use only Caucasian models in their campaigns. They used darker models as a negative example of what the skin would look if the consumer does not purchase their products. The companies have become commodified in culturally Chinese advertisements at large to sell high-end luxury goods because of this historical fascination with the further distinct creation of “Otherness” and the “exotic West beauty ideals” (Epan, 2013). The industry continually chooses to use specific East. 17. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(26) Asian celebrities or models to better “relate” to consumers, yet they look nothing like the dominating percentages on the said country. It can be argued that in East Asians, many believe there is an implicit ethnic differentiation that impacts a group’s perceived attractiveness. The western is continuously always trying to influence that reinforces beauty standard of whitening product ads in the market, marketers try to use various approaches in grabbing potential buyers‟ attention (Owhal, 2015). The most effective way skin whitening advertising captures the focus of their targeted audience. 治政大 dramatically in recent years purchasing decision. The advertising industries have changed 立. is by using soft colors to create attractiveness. This results in effectively impacting the consumers. worldwide. Nowadays, they have become prominent with the many different media forms that are. ‧ 國. 學. accessible to consumers of all ages. The advertising industries always attempt to follow consumers. ‧. wherever they go. Especially with the existence of blogs, social media, and search engine optimization system. Which indirectly helps facilitate marketing and business activities (Bernama,. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 2014). As consumers, we are regularly exposed to thousands of ads and hampered companies in creating a unique position in creating consumer attention. Social media platforms such as. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Instagram and Facebook help companies to create personal ads and engender a positive effect on. engchi. the attitude and sales intention towards the brand. By using these methods, the advertiser can create an engagement with potential online buyers as a repertoire to be connected as a part of their integrated marketing communications strategy.. 2.6 Japan, China, and Korea influences Historically East Asian societies have idealized light or even white skin for women. Japan has long and metaphorically idolized ivory-like skin to a boiled egg’—soft, referring to the white and. 18. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(27) smooth on the surface. The Meiji Period starting in the 1860s, higher social class of men and women wore white-lead powder makeup with blackened teeth and shaved eyebrows. Has time went on with modernization according to Mikiko Ashikari, makeup was eventually entirely abandoned by men. While middle- and upper-class women continued with wearing their traditional white-lead powder in formal kimonos dress or at any ceremonial occasions. In 1996-1997 an observation of 777 women at several sites in Osaka that was conducted by Ashikari. Findings showed 97.4 percent of women in public wore what was called “white face,”. 治政大 too white for their faces (Glenn, 2008). 立. which in today’s term is referred to as “makeup” simply because they wore makeup that was way. ‧ 國. 學 ‧. A report showed that 66 percent of the total skincare product market for moisturizers, face masks, and skin lighteners were in Japan (Glenn, 2008). Till date, this is still very much apparent. y. Nat. er. io. sit. in the Japanese cosmetics industry. There are many examples in Japanese cosmetics displays were and skincare products that are shown that. Even products that are not explicitly stated to be. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. whitening products carry names that contain the word "white," to promote whiteness and attract. engchi. consumers. Facial masks products labeled "Clear Turn White" or "Pure White" are just some of much common product names in the cosmetics skincare industry. While the Japanese had influenced Taiwan, especially with their cosmetics market being the largest in western Asia. Its growth rate is much lower than those of Korea and China market. China is influential to Taiwan's history and the culture of skin whitening in Taiwanese society today (Glenn, 2008). With a 10 percent rate per year, Korea's cosmetic market sure massive growths and even Korea is being passed out China. Growing by 20 percent each year. The demand for skin. 19. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(28) whitening products is worth $1 billion and has been consistently increasing. A 2007 Nielsen global survey found that 46 percent of Chinese, 47 percent of people in Hong Kong, 46 percent of Taiwanese, 29 percent of Koreans, and 24 percent of Japanese had used a skin lightener in the past year (Glenn, 2008).. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 20. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(29) CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the steps that will be taken to understand and examine the cultural normalization of the skin-whitening phenomena across different ethnic groups in Taiwan. By focusing on how deeply embedded the process of skin whitening is in modern Taiwanese society and employing the theories of globalizing notions of beauty and cultural imperialism. A little background on the interviewees is given to give an understanding of their. 治政大 elements that correlate with purpose of this research is to identify the cultural and globalization 立. history. Grounded theory and thematic analysis will be used to code and sort the findings. The. the Taiwanese society. It further looks at the dynamic context of the different ethnic groups in. ‧ 國. 學. Taiwan. For the exploration of the research question, a qualitative method of in-depth interviews. y. Nat. io. sit. Research questions. er. 3.1. ‧. with eleven participants will be conducted.. The research question aims to explore the understanding of the skin whitening culture in. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Taiwan. Qualitative research is used to gain insights into the culture of skin whitening process to. engchi. see the extent of the bodily ideal of whiteness. How Taiwanese women embrace it as well as to explore, what the popular discourse and practices of skin color Taiwanese woman? Does the research question focus on to what extent is the bodily ideal of whiteness embraced by Taiwanese women? RQ: what are the popular discourses and practices about skin color among Taiwanese woman?. 21. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(30) 3.2 Data collection A qualitative research method was implemented in the form of interviews for the process of this research. Using a qualitative approach of in-depth interviews is a powerful tool to get firsthand subjective experiences from the people being research (Tuckman, 1994). Face to face interview is dominant in academia, and for this research, it’s believed that this process will be the most effective method to get the information that is required. This style of qualitative research provides greater insight and understanding with regards to the resources they have available. In-. 治政大the women of the different ethnic for the initial stages of our research. By speaking directly with 立 depth interviews allow for the free exchange of information (Malhotra, 2007), which is suitable. groups will aid to help find out the information required. An in-depth interview gives the ability. ‧ 國. 學. to probe and uncover attitudes and beliefs (Malhotra, 2007). It helps collect information related to. ‧. the research question. See Appendix 1.1 for research interview questions.. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 3.2.1 Grounded theory. Grounded theory is a method that allows movement from data theories and enables new. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. approaches to be developed. Studies that adopt grounded theory were a step towards conceptual. engchi. thinking and theory building more empirical testing of the theories (khan,2014). It explicitly involves" generating theory and doing research as two parts of the same process' (Glaser,1978). A grounded theory of a studied topic starts with accurate data and ends with rendering them in an explanatory theory. The analytic process of the ground theory consists of coding data; developing, checking, and integrating general categories; and writing analytic narratives throughout the inquiry. Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss (1967). From the very beginning of the research process, the researcher codes the data compares data and codes and identifies analytic leads and tentative. 22. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(31) categories to develop through further data collection. As in other qualitative approaches, the data collected for a grounded theory can come from various sources. The data can be collected from involving interviews, observations, government documents, videotapes, newspapers, letters, and books. Anything that may or may not shed light on the research question in hand (Corbin and Strauss, 1990). It is a framework that allows understanding of the phenomenon being studied. Since it was first introduced in 1967, grounded theory has not changed its form. The specificity of its. 治政大of concepts that provide a thorough theory procedures are designed to develop a well-integrated set 立. procedures has been elaborated in some detail as the method has evolved in practice. Grounded. theoretical explanation of social phenomena under study. For this exploratory study, grounded. ‧ 國. 學. theory is believed to be best suited. As it will enable and aid an inductive approach rather than. ‧. deductive approaches.. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 3.2.2 Thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is a method for systematically identifying, organizing, and giving an. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. insight into the patterns of recurring themes across a data set (Clarke and Braun, 2016). Where the. engchi. researcher can access and make logical sense of the collected data allowing identification of the unique meaning of single information. Thematic analysis is a method for systematically identifying, organizing, and giving an insight into the patterns of recurring themes across a data set (Clarke and Braun, 2016). With this method of analysis, the researcher was able to access and make logical sense of the collected data. Allowing the identification of the unique meaning of every single information and recording patterns of meaning or themes of the collected data. However, what is shared is not necessarily in and of itself meaningful or essential to this study. Instead, the theme. 23. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(32) of meaning in the thematic analysis allows the researcher to identify crucial relationships within the different findings and research question. Then the need for flexibility is a massive aspect of in them after applying thematic analysis on all the for the elven interview transcripts. Even though the sample size was not significant to be representative, they were some interesting patterns that can be explored in future research.. 3.3 Data collection and sampling. 治政 This research aims to explore the diversity within the大 Taiwanese society. Data is collected 立. 3.3.1 Definition of population. using in-depth- interviews that will be conducted on the middle class and upper-class women. They. ‧ 國. 學. are the most targeted audience for skin whitening companies. According to previous studies, the. ‧. difference in ethnic origin shapes the way each person perceives color (McKay, Avery, and Morris, 2008). This research will sample Taiwanese women from different ethnic groups.. y. Nat. er. io. sit. 3.4 Cross- ethnic identity. For this study, eleven female participants from different Taiwanese ethnicity groups were. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. interviewed to gets a full sample of all the different types of women in the Taiwanese society and. engchi. how different or indifferent they perceive the skin whitening phenomenon. The following will give an informational background on all the various ethnic groups in Taiwan. Ethnic identity is often considered as a social construct (Waters, 1990). Ethnicity is usually invisible and unconscious because societal norms have been constructed around different ethnic, and cultural frameworks, values, and priorities. Ethnic identity is a critical part of the overall context of an individual and whole collective identity. A cross-cultural study is a comparative study of how people differ across various cultural backgrounds. In the case of this research, it will be a comparison amongst the. 24. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(33) different Taiwanese ethnic groups to identify the difference and cultural relations within the skin whitening phenomenon culture. For some of the various ethnic minority populations in Taiwan, ethnic identity is manifested in a very conscious way. The manifestation is affected mostly by two conflicting social and cultural influence. The first is a deep conscious immersion into cultural traditions and values due to religious beliefs, familiar neighborhood, and educational communities instill a definite sense of ethnic identity and confidence. Secondly, individuals are often required to filter ethnic identity through. 治政 (Chávez and Guido-DiBrito, 1999). It has been suggested that大 cultural identification highlights an 立 negative treatment and media messages received from others because of their race and ethnicity. intersection between racial perceptions of others “racism” and racial perception of self “racial. ‧ 國. 學. development” (Chávez & Guido-DiBrito,1999). It may be valuable in consideration of racial and. ‧. ethnic identity in relations to skin whitening.. sit. y. Nat. n. al. er. io. 3.4.1. Ethnic groups in Taiwan. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Taiwan ethnic mix (news.bbc.co.uk). 25. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(34) Taiwan's current populations of twenty-three million mainly consist of many ethnic groups. In particular, five main ethnic groups: The aborigines, Hokkien, Hakkas, Mainlanders, and new immigrants. The Hokkien Han Chinese ethnic group makes up around 69% of the total population, putting them at the spot of the largest group in the country. The Hakka Han Chinese follows with them making up about 15% of the total population (Huang, 2018). These ethnic groups have contributed significantly to the cultural diversity, economic, social, and political spheres in Taiwan. The interactions of these ethnic groups have led to the borrowing of cultural practices,. 治政 The different ethnic groups have played a vital role in大 the dynamics and differentiation of 立. intermarriages, and growth or population (Huang, 2018).. the various integrated groups in Taiwan. With this research, it will be interesting to explore the. ‧ 國. 學. impact of the skin whitening phenomenon that has become such a vital part of the Taiwanese. ‧. general public lifestyle. Divided into five ethnolinguistic groups, Taiwan is considered "ethnolinguistic" and not "ethnic. “This is due to some groups of people maintaining there is every. y. Nat. er. io. sit. little ethnic difference between some of these groups that exist on the Island (Noels, Kil, & Fang, 2014). This belief is only in relations to the different racial features and divided language and. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. culture. Taiwan's aborigines spoke Malayo-Polynesian language, but they were not a. engchi. homogeneous group. The group is often placed in the classification of aboriginal mountain people. Who carried a considerable risk of possibly being displaced or assimilated into a more technologically advanced society that is present today (Noels, Kil, & Fang, 2014). It is believed that the aborigines had the first contact with each of the successive emigrating cultures. The different Aboriginal tribes and groups are sparsely located all over the Island of Taiwan. While sharing a common ethnicity, the groups significantly differ in their language, religious, and traditional customs.. 26. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(35) 3.4.2 Holko Han Chinese Hoklo still holds its position as the largest group in Taiwan, making up an estimated twothirds of the Taiwanese population to date (Jennings, 2012).With their language, the Hoklo are usually known as Taiwanese, though not all Taiwanese speakers are Hoklo, and not all Hoklo speak Taiwanese (Liao, 2019). The Hoklo Han Chinese mostly migrated from China to Taiwan in the 19th century before the establishment of the Japanese rule. They primarily spoke Sinitic languages a standard Chinese dialect. (Noels, Kil & Fang, 2014). The culture of Hokolo. 治政大 the business world and the Predominantly Buddhist and Taoist, they are a group that dominates 立. significantly evolved in relations to their language, from that of their homeland across the Strait.. cultural life of the island. In the 1990s the democratization of Taiwan strengthens the group into. ‧ 國. 學. becoming the most critical group in electoral politics (Chepkemoi, 2018). The Hoklo people. ‧. intermarried with the native and adopted some of their customs and assimilated some of the aboriginals (Liao, 2019). The Hoklo people speak Hokkien dialect which cannot be understood by. y. Nat. er. io. sit. speakers of other Chinese dialects. The Hoklo Han Chinese have adopted most of the religions practiced in Taiwan as well as some cultural aspects of the Taiwanese aboriginals (Chepkemoi,. n. al. 2018).. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 3.4.3 Hakka Han Chinese The Hakka are Han Chinese originated from the Hakka-speaking provinces of China, such as Shanxi, Henan, and Hubei. They are impoverished and stigmatized subgroup of Han Chinese, whose settlements are scattered from Jiangxi to Sichuan (Erbaugh, 1992). They make up around 14% of the total population of Taiwan(Chen, 2017). The Hakka people migrated to other countries all over the world, mainly due to social unrests and invasions.. 27. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(36) The Hakka do not hold their identity center on birthplace but ancestry and culture. As migrants, they repeatedly dug up their ancestors' bones and carried them in jars to their new settlements. The group strongly sees themselves as more Chinese than other Han (Chen, 2017). They persistently preserve that they are ancient in northern Han culture and always remind themselves where they come from formerly. During wars, they fled to Taiwan and settled there permanently. Most of the Hakka's today are recognized as leaders and military men. Mainly because, by the time of their settlement, there was little land left for cultivation, so their primary emphasis was on education and related careers (Chen, 2017).. 立. 3.4.4 Mainland Chinese. 政治大. ‧ 國. 學. Another established member of the five existing groups is another Mainland Chinese. ‧. settlement, who traveled to the country around the seventeenth century (Chepkemoi, 2018). They migrated to Taiwan in the 1940s from mainland China after Kuomintang lost the Chinese civil war. y. Nat. er. io. sit. in 1949. The migrants mainly consisted of soldiers, merchants, bankers, and other people who feared communist rule. The only way mainland Chinese were distinguished from the local. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. Taiwanese people was that their native land was not Taiwan (Chen, 2017). The Hakka had to settle. engchi. and cultivate land in the more fertile mountainous areas, as Hokkien had already populated the plains area that was most suitable to intensive farming. On top of the issues with land, there was a problem with mutually unintelligible dialect heightened the fabrication between the two groups. Fortunately, this relationship changed after the Japanese occupied Taiwan. Under Japanese rulings as the two groups constituted the ruled Taiwanese, as opposers to the ruling of the Japanese. Usually called Minnanren (閩南人) in Taiwan, this name stems from the origins of this group across the Taiwan Strait (Chepkemoi, 2018).. 28. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(37) The Hoklo Taiwanese the second oldest of Taiwan's four main groups. There were first brought over in large numbers by the Dutch in the mid-seventeenth century. Successive waves of settlers from Fujian arrived in Taiwan over the two centuries. Following their escape of poverty and famine, they sought their fortune in the frontier life of Taiwan (G. Knappand 1976). A few women were included in the trip most of the Hoklo in Taiwan will also have some percentage of Aboriginal DNA. Involved in the early Chinese settlers were social groups that were differentiated by different dialect and mainland ancestral heritage they include Hokkien and Hakka. Over 80%. 政治大. of the Hokkien emigrated from Fukien province were mostly Hakka (G. Knappand 1976).. 3.4.5 Aboriginal Taiwanese. 立. ‧ 國. 學. Way before the arrival of the Han Chinese in the 17th century, Taiwanese Aboriginals have. ‧. inhabited the Island of Taiwan for at least 8000 years (Schaffer and Rostow, 1982). Known as The Yuanzhumin (原住民) who are believed to have been the original inhabitants of the Island, tied to. sit. y. Nat. io. er. the Philippines, Malaysia, Madagascar, and Oceania and some other Polynesian groups in Asia.. al. They are Austronesian people, about genetics and linguistic traits. There is a lot of variation within. n. iv n C the Aboriginal group, with more than a dozen tribes whichU h e n g c h i vary in physiognomy, language, and culture. While Aboriginal peoples previously settled throughout the whole Island, the lowland. groups were either assimilated into later immigrant Chinese groups or driven into the hills by these same settlers. So, the significant Aboriginal populations are concentrated in the harder-to-reach parts of Taiwan (Schaffer and Rostow, 1982). These groups can be found in the mountainous terrain, narrow eastern plains and the Orchid Island in Taiwan. The aboriginals are the indigenous inhabitants of Taiwan who have been assimilated into other communities through intermarriages. The aboriginals have lost a great deal. 29. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(38) of their cultural identity due to intermarriages cultural assimilation and continued contact with colonizers. While others face a threat of extinction (Schaffer and Rostow, 1982).. 3.4.6 New immigrants New immigrants (新移民) is a term coined by the former president of the Republic of China. The term refers to the group that consists of mainly new residents, originally from other nations like Vietnam, Thailand, China, Indonesia, the Philippines, and many Southeast Asian. 政治大 America and Europe as well as other countries like Japan and Korea (panorama, 2017). 立. workers. Newer members include a tiny community of ex-patriots from western countries like. ‧ 國. 學. 3.5 Sampling frame. ‧. For this qualitative study, a snowball sampling frame was used, as the interviews were selected. y. Nat. sit. from the researcher's social circle. Participants were chosen from friends and colleagues who. n. al. er. io. introduced their family and friends that were willing to participate. Advises that sampling frames. i n U. v. need to be validated for study so that it can reduce the risk of sampling frame error (Malthr 199).. Ch. engchi. The definition of the target population is young females over 19 years old. Older woman around 60 years of age because they are believed to be a targeted market for skincare companies. Furthermore, between these ages, most women are starting up adult lives and could have developed their views and mindset on the topic of skin whitening. The sampling frame contains twelve Taiwanese women from personal contacts. Most women lived in Taipei as it was tough to travel across the island. Using this method, the participants were often chosen because of their relevancy, availability, and interest in the study. The was no incentives used in the process of conducting the interviews. 70% of the sample where Hakka. Taiwanese, which is not a massive surprise as they 30. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(39) are the majority ethnic group in Taiwan as they make up over 69% of the population in current time.. 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 31. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(40) P1.. 54. Hakka. Kaohsiung. SKYPE. 28/4/2019. P2.. 24. Hakka. Taipei. In person. 14/5/2019. P3.. 31. Hakka. Taipei. In person. 16/5/2019. P4.. 25. Aboriginal. Taipei. In person. 17/5/2019. P5.. 65. Mainland. Taipei. In person. 21/5/2019. Chinese. Hakka. Taipei. In person. Mainland. Taipei. In person. io. al. n. 23. 23/5/2019. Mainland Chinese. 23/05/2019. er. Chinese. P9.. 23/5/2019. y. 24. Skype. sit. P8.. Taipei. ‧ 國. 22. 立. ‧. P7.. Haklo. 學. 24. Nat. P6.. 政治大. iv In person n C hTaipei engchi U. 26/5/2019. P10. 37. Hakka. Taipei. In person. 26/05/2019. P11.. 35. Hakka. Taipei. In person. 28/05/2019. Table Participants interviews. 32. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(41) 3.5.1 Interview process and guidelines The primary method that was utilized to collect data in this study was an in-depth interview. Before conducting the interviews, participants were asked if they consented. After agreeing, participates started answering questions regarding the extent of the bodily ideal of whiteness that in the Taiwanese society. The interviewer had a set of pre-prepared guideline questions, to remind the researcher of essential topics to aid the research question. The researcher didn't need to stick precisely to the guideline questions. Additional probe question where included when required to. 治政大interview. Guideline questions can including leading or suggestive questions in the process of the 立. extract useful information from the participants. This helps the researcher to be flexible without. be found In the Appendix Pg. 85. Each interview lasted for around 5-12 minutes.. ‧ 國. 學. The interviewer also adjusted the wording and gave simple explanations of some questions. ‧. to enable the participant to have a full understanding of what they are being asked. Doing this was necessary due to the language barrier for most of the participants. All interviews took place in. y. Nat. er. io. sit. Taipei city or via Skype. For participants with little English, the researcher required a translator to aid the interview for all parties to have a full understanding of questions and answers. Due to many. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. of the participant's busy schedule, it was challenging to organize suitable timing and location. It. engchi. involved a lot of traveling around the city for the researcher.. 3.5.2 Data analysis The theme sheet consisted of 10 open-ended questions designed to gain better insights into the objectives of the research. Although there will be a setlist of items on our theme sheet, these are prompts to guide the interviewee in the right direction as we want to explore. Experiences the participants have had. There was space allowed in the in-depth interviews for questions that follow. 33. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(42) on from what the participant has said (Granot et al. 2012). Analyzing the information is possible through using mapping and interpreting Kreuger’s seven established criteria (Rabiee, 2004). This theory consists of a 7-point test that is to be followed for an accurate analysis of in-depth interviews. It includes the following; words, context, internal consistency, frequency or extensiveness of comments, the specificity of comments, the intensity of comments and big ideas.. 3.5.3 Coding. 治政 Though coding, we can capture the conceptual abstraction of 大 the data gathered. It is an exploratory 立 Coding is the core process in classic ground theory mythology (Denzin and Lincoln,2005).. problem-solving technique that does not follow any formulas. Coding is simply an initial step. ‧ 國. 學. towards a more in-depth analysis and interpretation of a document (Saldana,2009). There are two. ‧. types of coding, the classic grounded theory, and substantive coding. For this research, the researcher will look for “codes,” words or short phrases that may symbolically assigned. A. y. Nat. er. io. sit. summative, salient, essence-capturing, and consist of interview transcripts, participant observation field notes, journals, documents, literature, and so on (Saldana 2009). For this study coding, a was. n. al. Ch. i n U. v. a vital link between the data collection process and the development of an emergent theory.. engchi. 34. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.

(43) CHAPTER 4 Results After conducting all the interviews and applying thematic analysis on all the interview transcripts. There were many striking repetitive and similarities in the coding process. The interviews were conducted and structured to find out about the perception and awareness of the skin whitening phenomenon in Taiwan. Participants were asked questions, aimed to answer and create an understanding of the research questions. The results provided clarity of how the general. 治政 reflected on their attitudes towards the use of skin whitening大 products in the Taiwanese society, 立 public may perceive this skin whitening phenomenon in Taiwanese society. As the interviewees. the following findings highlight the broader context of this study, which is the social context of. ‧ 國. 學. what the popular discourse and practices are about skin color amongst Taiwanese. Direct. ‧. quotations from the transcripts will provide evidence to provide justification of the findings. Some quotes may appear in more than one discussion as they may be relevant for use in a different. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. discourse finding.. 4.1. Colorism: Social hierarchy. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. The discourse that social status can be determined from a whiter skin shade is still exists in Asian countries. Historical roots date as far back to the 19th century when the Chinese royal family ruled Taiwan (Pan, 2013). It was a time when Royals had whiter skin tones in comparison to the rest of society. White ivory painting of royals portrayed their white skin. All of this which signified status, wealth, and association with a particular social class of people. People with darker skin tones were usually peasants who worked in fields. The concept of skin color as an indicator of socioeconomic status is where people make an assumption about one’s social class sue to the. 35. DOI:10.6814/NCCU201901217.