Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.1. Statement of the Problem
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This research examines the problem of children who migrate without the companionship of an adult focusing specifically on children who are migrating to the United States. These children will be referred to as ‘unaccompanied migrant children'.
1.1. Statement of the Problem
Unaccompanied child migration is nothing new; every year thousands of children undertake dangerous transnational journeys in search of different social and economic opportunities (Punch, 2007). In the case of child migration to the United States, this is also not a new matter; what is new here is the sudden rise in numbers of unaccompanied children that entered the country by June 2014. The phenomena as it pertains, involve a larger share of children from Central America instead of Mexico that is more habitual (Kandel, 2014).
This sudden rise in the large number of unaccompanied minors crossing the United States’
borders has caused president Obama to declare the issue as a humanitarian crisis.
In the past years, apprehensions of unaccompanied children have increased significantly. A report published by the congressional research service shows how the trend in child migration to the United States has not only increased, but also the pattern shifted.
Mexico used to be the highest sending country and, therefore, represented the highest number of children apprehended at the United States' borders. Now the pattern has switched, and Central America has become the region with the highest number of children apprehended at the borders and this number is highly concentrated in mainly 3 countries, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras (Kandel, 2014).
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Table 1.1 Unaccompanied Children Apprehended from C.A. and Mexico Country FY2009 FY2010 FY2011 FY2012 FY2013 FY2014
Mexico 16,114 13,724 11,768 13,974 17,240 15, 634
Honduras 968 1,017 974 2,997 6,747 18, 244
Guatemala 1,115 1,517 1,565 3,835 8,068 17, 056
El Salvador 1,221 1,910 1,394 3, 314 5,990 16,404
Nicaragua 18 35 14 43 57 178
Source: U.S. Customs and Border Protection. Available at
http://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/southwest-border-unaccompanied-children
In fiscal year 2009, 19, 418 children were apprehended at the United States border out of which, 16,114 of apprehended children belong to Mexico, while 1,221 were from El Salvador, 1,115 from Guatemala and 968 from Honduras (U.S. CBP, 2014) By the end of the fiscal year 2014, 67,339 unaccompanied minors were apprehended at the United States border where only 15, 634 belonged to Mexico, 16,404 were from El Salvador, 17, 056 Guatemala and 18, 244 from Honduras; in this same year, the number of apprehended children reported from Nicaragua was 178 (Ibid).
This increasing number of unaccompanied children migrating to the United States makes it apparent that countries of origin seem to lack the adequate capacity to protect their children. This rise questions about the root causes or push factors of the increase in unaccompanied migrant children, and why Honduras represents the highest sending country in Central America, while other countries such as Nicaragua are not experiencing the same issue.
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While comparing the numbers of children that were recently apprehended in the United States, it becomes evident that the problem itself is mainly concentrated in 3 countries of Central America with Honduras being the highest sending country of them all.
On the other hand, other countries such as Nicaragua hold a very low amount of children apprehended at the border. This makes an interesting case, to study the different social and economic aspect aspects that may be causing this child migration surge.
After analyzing this given pattern of migration and the different theories of migration such as the neoclassical theory, new economics of migration theory, dual labor market theory and network theory. It seems clear that the solo analysis of economic factors as the root cause of this child migration issue is not enough although it has been repeatedly shown that economic factors are one of the main reasons why people migrate. In other words, it may be true that some of these children are leaving their homes in search for better economical opportunities, the economic status of these countries in terms of GDP per capita and high levels of poverty does not accurately reflect the number of children apprehended, especially when Nicaragua is the poorest country in the region.
Since the economic rationale itself is not enough to explain this migration crisis, other social factors must be taken into account. Based on the selection of cases, a very outstanding variable that marks the difference between them both, are they high and low levels of violence that exist between them, in that sense, it becomes necessary to include a country level analysis of violence in addition to the before mention economical factor.
After identifying two of the major factors that may be contributing to this unaccompanied child migration crisis, it is important to acknowledge that there is an undeniable poverty-migration and violence-migration linkage. To begin with, the literature explored in chapter 2 shows how poverty can serve as a determinant of migration in the
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sense that it leads people who are in vulnerable situations, to opt for bettering their lives through migration. Keeping in mind that poverty is strongly related to unemployment and underemployment, it is found that people often choose to migrate in search of better employment opportunities. Additionally, in cases where people choose to migrate for family reunification, this can somehow also be linked to poverty. In this sense, the networks theory that explains how people migrate base on pre-established links, never eliminates the reasoning that the first set to migrate did so based on economic reasons.
In addition to this, since migration is significantly connected to wellbeing, it can be said that there is also a relationship between violence and migration, this simply because violence is strongly related to the well being of a person. Although this is a relatively under-researched area, there is enough evidence showing that there is an existing link between violence and migration, such as the case of children leaving their countries because they feel directly or indirectly threatened by certain forms of collective violence such as those perpetrated by gangs.
1.2. Research Question and 0bjectives
The study aims to explore the underlying factors that are causing children from Central America to engage in the dangerous experience of migrating towards the United States through irregular channels and without the companionship of an adult. At the end, it is envisaged that the study will have policy implications and it will contribute to the planning of intervention programs for children, especially risk children that are prone to engage in migration and, in particular, those in Honduras. In this sense regarding unaccompanied child migration to the United States, the main research questions this study seeks to answer are:
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1. Why are Nicaragua and Honduras experiencing different migratory trend when it comes to unaccompanied migrant children influx in the United States?
2. How has poverty and violence (as push factors) influenced the child migration flow from Honduras and Nicaragua to the United States.?
These research questions can be answered through the following specific objectives:
a. To analyze the historical migration pattern from Nicaragua and Honduras to The United States.
b. To assess the factors that motivate these children to migrate unaccompanied to the United States.
c. To explore the extent to which policies of the three countries in play has contributed to this issue.
Accomplishing the above-mentioned objectives will support the main argument of this study which is stated as “the lack of economic opportunity plus a high level of violence increases the number of unaccompanied child migration to the United States”.
At the same time, it will also help explain why Nicaragua and Honduras are experiencing different migratory trend when it comes to the number of unaccompanied children influx in the United States.
1.3. Justification of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate the underlying causes of unaccompanied child migration to the United States and to understand why Nicaragua and Honduras are
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the overall understanding of how poverty and violence has influenced the child migration flow (as a push factor) to the United States. This will, therefore, help us understand why countries of origin such as Nicaragua and Honduras have had a different experience in child migration pattern of unaccompanied minors apprehended at the United States southern border.
A careful research through various sources on this phenomenon reveals there is a great amount of literature on migration, but most are focusing on the adults’ point of view (Haan and Yaqub, 2008). In the cases of literature exploring analyzing independent child migration, they tend to focus on the child as victim of trafficking, or where economic reasons has been explained as the major driving factor (Bastia, 2005; Haan and Yaqub, 2008). There has also been significant amount of research sought to establish the policies or mechanisms that the United States should adopt in order to provide better care of these migrant children once they are apprehended at the border, especially in terms of ensuring their best interest and that there is no human rights violation in the process (Kandel, 2014).
Additionally, a United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees report about unaccompanied child migration provides a situational analysis of this recent crisis, for instance, highlighted violence and poverty as the major contributing factors to out-migration from Central America (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2014).
Nevertheless, little work has been carried out to study what other major factors might be the root cause of this migration crisis makes which Honduras the number 1 sending country compared to its neighbor Nicaragua that has one of the lowest numbers of unaccompanied children apprehended at the United States border in the past years.
In this study, the focus is to understand why children from Nicaragua and Honduras are not migrating in the same scale. Investigating the current socio-economic factors of these two countries along with the historical antecedents of migration to the United States
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and an analysis of the possible United States policy implications will be the focus of this study. Children are key components of any given society, and guaranteeing their safety during migratory process or once they are apprehended at United States borders is very important. However, it is also important is to guarantee their safety at home so they don´t feel the urge to take on these dangerous journeys that jeopardize their well-being and their lives.
An important rationale for this study is acknowledging children as agencies, where they can be considered as social actors and active participants in the decision-making process of migration, rather than passive actors. A very convincing argument in this respect is that children need to be considered as agencies and be listened to by researchers in order to understand the issues that affect their lives (Qvortrup 1994). Studies related to children should be centered specifically on the child.
The insights to be gained from this study will be helpful to the government, policy makers and researchers interested in child migration and, in general, to authorities responsible for child development and the welfare of children.
1.4 Methodology
A qualitative research method will be used to carry out this study. This research method has been considered most appropriate because it is feasible in terms of providing a complete, in-depth explanation of the research topic; which by nature is more exploratory.
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1.4.1. Research Design.
As previously stated, the purpose of this thesis is to create better understanding of the underlying causes of child migration from Central America to the United States and to determine the reason why the numbers of apprehended children from Honduras is so high compared to the number of apprehended children from Nicaragua. This entails a detailed study of wider and local context factors influencing such migratory trends. A case study approach is, therefore, used to answer the research questions that frame this work. This specific designed was chosen because the case study model is concerned with describing a phenomenon (Yin, 2003). Hence, it is a highly appropriate method for investigating the dynamics involving unaccompanied child migration.
The selection of the cases was based on two factors. Firstly, and most important is the number of apprehended minors that has been reported by the United States Customs and Border Protection of the department of Homeland Security where Honduras showed the highest number of casualties, while its neighbor Nicaragua showed a significant lower amount and one of lowest in the region. The second reason that influenced the case selection was based on the fact that the two countries are coming from a background with similar historical socio-economical factors.
In addition to the selection of the cases that were analyzed, the destination country chosen for the study of unaccompanied child migration is the U.S. As chapter 3 explains, a major destination country for Nicaraguan unaccompanied minors is Costa Rica. Every year, children from Nicaragua migrate to Costa Rica in a circular fashion to work in coffee plantations to save money so they can return home and start the following school year (IOM, personal communication, April 29, 1015). In this sense, the reason why this study
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focuses on children who are apprehended in the U.S. rather than children migrating to Costa Rica is primordially because unaccompanied child migration from Central America to the U.S. is occurring in numbers a lot higher than those to Costa Rica and increasing at concerning rates in the past years. Additionally, these children are migration to the U.S on a more permanent fashion unlike the circular migration that occurs in Costa Rica.
Nevertheless, this study also acknowledges the fact that there is still a need to address all cases of unaccompanied child migration that are occurring in the region regardless of the magnitude of each case.
1.4.2. Data Collection
The primary and secondary data, which will support the research question, has been derived from three main sources. Firstly, from traditional sources of measurement of migration such as censuses and demographic surveys of the countries of origin, transit and destination. In addition, other non-demographic information sources including statistics.
Secondly, by examining published works such as books, journals, and official statements.
Lastly, by analyzing interviews conducted to government and non-governmental officials.
As far as tertiary sources go, these include newspaper articles, publications by non-governmental organizations and online libraries. Example of the range of source that were used, include but are not limited to:
• Historiographical analysis of past and present migration trend from the two countries of interest to the United States and porously delimitated to publications and reports after 1990.
• Existing literature focusing on Honduras and Nicaragua’s migratory process to the United States.
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• Domestic and International laws that have affected the degree of flexibility and ability in which Nicaraguans and Hondurans were able to migrate to the United States and obtain legal status or be deported.
• Interviews conducted by the researcher with institutions that worked directly with children who has migrated to the United States either in the process of receiving, repatriation or reintegrating the children. The rationale behind this was to capture, as accurately as possible information about the children whom they were able to work with and had the opportunity to interview. The aim of the results of the interviews is to form a primary source of information and obtain figures against which we could measure other data source and, to arrive at a more balanced picture.
1.5. Delimitation and Limitation
The scope of the study has to be delimited because the resources of doing the research were limited. The time is the most important resource and determinant for the extent of the research. After reviewing a period from the late 1970s to determine the paths of migration, focusing later more specifically on the period between 1990 and 2014 to analyze the case of unaccompanied child migration, this research hold that economic reasons alone are not the main driver of the child migration crisis in the region. The conclusion will contribute to the current debate of whether violence is a major contributing factor to this crisis.
However, there are some limitations to this research. This study was conducted during a time when the researcher was not in the Central American nor North American region. This represented a constraint on gaining access to children from Nicaragua and
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Honduras who has migrated unaccompanied to the United States in order to conduct proper interviews and gain insight on their personal assessment of the driving causes that led them to undertake their journeys. Further, a more ethnographic research is needed to capture a more holistic exploration of these children's migratory decisions. To complement this deficiency, interviews were conducted to key informants from Nicaragua and Honduras.
The key informants selected have worked directly with unaccompanied children from each country and have gained first-hand insights to their case.
Another limitation encountered was the time constraint of the research and available data. As mentioned previously, it was ideal to focus on a time frame between 1990 and 2014 to analyze the case of unaccompanied child migration since this coincides with two of the major waves of migration in the region. However, there were not sufficient data of unaccompanied children from Nicaragua and Honduras migrating to the United States dating back to the early 1990s. In general, the limitation of the data collection can be listed as following:
1. Access to secondary data: The existence of a limitation in terms of accessibility to public information.
2. Interviews: The interviewees were two strategic institutions and organizations that worked directly with the migrant children from both countries that were analyzed. It would have been optimal to have access to the children themselves and conduct the interviews directly with the minors.
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1.6. Organization of the Study
Chapter 1 covers the main arguments of this study.
Chapter 2 will form the literature review. It will first and go over the definition of the main terms been used. Secondly, it examines the main theoretical perspectives of migration that inform the study. Additionally it will review the role of the migrant child as a both a social actor and as a victim of human trafficking with the intention to draw attention to the child as a passive and active actor in the migration process. Additionally, this chapter will also link unaccompanied child migration to poverty and violence as part of the contributing factors that cause a child to decide to leave his or her home.
Chapter 3 will explore the specific case of Nicaragua taking into account current socio-economic factors of the country that can be directly linked to out migration and other historical factors related to migration trend to the United States.
Chapter 4 provides a historical account of the development of the migratory trend
Chapter 4 provides a historical account of the development of the migratory trend