Chapter 1 Introduction
2.2 Subdivision of audiovisual translation
in which the verbal dimension is supplemented by elements in other media[….]The concurrence of different communication systems such as images, sound (music, noise) and the verbal component (oral production, written text) is responsible for a series of limitations that constrain the translator's task.’ (Díaz-Cinta)
In a further explanation to the constraints mentioned by Diaz-Cinta, Chaume offers a more comprehensive account on the nature of audiovisual text, elements that create difficulties of translating subtitles, while proposing his translation paradigm based on Film Studies. She made the following comments:
An audiovisual text is a semiotic construct comprising several signifying codes that operate simultaneously in the production of meaning. A film is composed of a series of codified signs, articulated in accordance with syntactic rules. Its typology, the way it is organised and the meaning of all its elements results in a semantic structure that the spectator deconstructs in order to understand the meaning of the text. (2004: 16)
Put in another way, subtitle, though merely a semantic structure created under space-and-time limit, is the essence of combined signifying codes. Therefore, it is clear that translating for audiovisual texts, besides linguistic elements, the
polysemiotic nature of the text should be brought into play. But to how and to what extent it is adequately presented is an arduous effort that requires the translator to make constant decisions, sentence by sentence.
2.2 Subdivision of audiovisual translation
Although the audiovisual translation is normally associated with the subtitling and lip-synch dubbing of audiovisual material for television and cinema, its range is actually much greater, covering as it does the translation of television programmes, films, videos, CD-ROMs, DVDs, operas and plays. (O’Connell. 2007: 123)
Acknowledging that the most prevalent two methods in screen translation are
subtitling and dubbing, Gambier categorizes cross-language transfer in audiovisual translation into two major groups: Dominant type and Challenging type (172-175).
The ‘Dominant Type’ means the most prevalent practices in the field of translation and the ‘Challenging Type’, as Gambier argues that they are more difficult to process.
Here I have organized the subcategories of the two types into a table for a clear review.
Figure 2.1 Gambier’s AVT categories
Audiovisual Translation Categories Dominant Types
1 Interlingual subtitling (or open caption)
involves moving from the oral dialogue to one to two written lines and from one language to another, sometimes to two other languages 2 Dubbing adapts a text for on-camera characters 3 Consecutive interpreting can be done in three possible modes: live,
prerecorded or link-up
4 Simultaneous interpreting is used, for instance, during a debate in a studio such as presidential debates
5 Voice-over or ‘half dubbing’
occurs when a documentary or an interview is translated/adapted and broadcast about in synchrony by a journalist or an actor
6 Free Commentary is clearly an adaptation for a new audience, with additions, omissions, clarifications and comments 7 Simultaneous (or sight)
Translation
is done from a script or another set of subtitles already available in a foreign language (pivot language) or from a dialogue list
8 Multilingual production such as double versions (same actors, but film dubbed) and remarks (recontextualization in accordance with the new target culture.)
Challenging Types
1 scenario/script is required to get subsidies, grants and other financial support for a co-production
2 intralingual subtitling (or closed caption)
is done for the benefit of the deaf and hard of hearing (HH) in the same language as content 3 live (or real time)
subtitling
is used in various types of interviews, such as Clinton’s hearing in the Supreme Court for sexual harassment in 1998
4 Surtitling Is one-line subtitling placed above a theatre stage or in the back of the seats, and displayed
non-stop (i.e. without interruption) throughout a performance
5 audio description is a kind of double dubbing in interlingual transfer for the blind and visually impaired.
Which translation or form is chosen is based on the genre of the program, the need of target audience and the broadcaster’s concerns. But the two best-known and most widespread techniques of screen translation are no doubt dubbing and
subtitling because of the relatively easy technologies these two forms require and the
least interfering for audience’s viewing experience. Since the two types of methods are most common practices, they will be introduced in the following sub-segments.2.2.1 Dubbing
Dubbing, also known as ‘post-synchronization’, is an oral form of
communication used to cover the original soundtrack by another voice, involving ‘the replacement of the original speech by a voice track which attempts to follow as closely possible the timing, phrasing and lip movements of the original dialogue’
(Luyken et al. 1991: 31 qtd. in Baker and Hochel: 95). The method is known to be one that modifies the source text to a large extent and thus makes it familiar to the target audience through domestication and it requires less cognitive effort from viewers as who only need to concentrate on watching the images and listening to the dialogue.
While both dubbing and subtitling deal with ‘language transfer’ from one culture to another, the constraints and preferences are different. Baker and Hocher (75) summarize the pros and cons of dubbing in the following:
The disadvantages include the cost and time factor, loss of authenticity, impossibility of maintaining the illusion of authenticity given the presence of visual reminders of the foreignness of the setting and characters and the need to maintain lip synchronization.[…] On the positive side, dubbing involves less textual reduction than subtitling, is more professionalized, draws on established methods of post-synchronization, constructs a more homogeneous discourse,[…]
and it does not require a high level of literacy from its users.
Although dubbing faces doubts of ‘undetectable textual manipulation’ as there is no access to the source text on screen, it is an effective way to reach audiences with low literacy rates (O’Connell, 2007: 126). In other words, children and illiterate viewers can also enjoy foreign productions and entertainment through dubbing. This explains most cartoons and imported TV soap operas broadcast in Taiwan are usually dubbed. Baker and Hochel (75) sum up the factors that determine the choice of dubbing or subtitling, i.e., ‘cost, availability of relevant technology, standard of literacy, interest in foreign languages, degree of cultural openness, and the strength of the local film industry.’ These elements play a dominant role in deciding one
country’s preferred method of screen translation.
2.2.2 Subtitling
Unlike dubbing, subtitling is the visual form of communication, consists of written texts on the screen, ‘graphically extrinsic to the visual track.’(Fong, 2009: 40) Prominent scholar in the field of subtitling, Henrik Gottlieb defines it as ‘diasemiotic translation in polysemiotic6‘ media (including films, TV, video and DVD), in the form of one or more lines of written text presented on the screen in sync with the original dialogue’ (2004: 220).
There are two types of subtitles: intralingual and interlingual, which serve different needs for audiences. From a linguistic viewpoint, Intralingual subtitle (within one language) is ‘done for the benefit of the deaf and hard of hearing (HH), or sometimes to help migrants, for instance, to learn or to improve their command of their new language.”(O’Connell, 174)
Interlingual subtitle, i.e., subtitle between two languages, involves moving from
the oral dialogue to one/two written lines and from one language to another. Subtitles can be divided into open and closed type based on the technical needs. Open subtitles, including cinema subtitles and interlingual television captions that are processed on the moving images and cannot be removed from the screen, whereas viewers have the freedom to choose to access to closed subtitles, that can be chosen. (Gambier, 2003:
170)
This translation technique involves not only translating from the source into the target language but also from a spoken dialogue into a written one. Raphael Nir referred to interlingual subtitling as a ‘’double conversion’; from one language to
6 The term 'polysemiotic' is explained by Gottlieb in his 2004 paper in the Nordic Journal of English Studies, referring to the presence of two or more parallel channels of discourse constituting the text in question. In a film, up to four semiotic channels are in operation simultaneously: non-verbal picture, written pictorial elements, dialogue, and music and effects.
another and from one medium to another.’ (1984: 84) On a similar note, Gottlieb, a veteran subtitler-turned-professor, coins the subtitling process as ‘diagonal translation’, arguing the complexity of interlingual subtitling as ‘being two-dimensional, 'jaywalks' (cross over) from source-language speech to target-language writing.’ (2004:220) Their views acknowledge the high level of complexity involved in the process of rendering movie subtitles that is far more than traditional translation of written texts.
2.3 Audiovisual Translation in Taiwan
Popular English-speaking TV series such as MacGyver, Michael Knight, and
Sledge Hammer! were broadcast in Chinese dub in Taiwan, back in 1980’s.
However, for more recent English-speaking TV series or programs, dubbing has been replaced by Chinese subtitles, a result that can be linked with the country’s rigorous effort to promote English education and a demand of authenticity. Currently in Taiwan, only TV drama series from South Korea and Hong Kong and cartoon programs, aimed at children or teenagers, use dub and subtitle broadcast in Chinese dub with same language subtitles. There are some exceptions, such as that re-runs of the programs are broadcast with the original soundtrack and Chinese subtitles. In general, Taiwan is a ‘subtitling’ country because the country embraces imported a great amount of audiovisual contents. Therefore it has a high and steady demand for subtitling translation.