CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION
5.4 Suggestions for Future Research
Considering the limitations of the present study, suggestions for future
research are addressed as follows. First of all, more qualitative data could be collected through more interviews and classroom observations to explore more patterns of what goes on in the classroom, the interaction between the ETAs and the learners, and classroom impacts ETAs may have on the learners. Due to the time constraints, this study could have incorporated more qualitative data into it, such as even more regular classroom observations and interviews at different schools that have ETAs, and annual reports. If regular classroom observations and interviews were conducted with more schools, even more, probably different, views and preferences of learners and teachers could have been added to compare, discuss or elaborate on other patterns. As
discussed earlier, native English speaking teachers such as ETAs have benefitted just as much as the learners. Thus, annual reports of previous ETAs could have been used to find patterns on the gains for the ETAs, and not only the learners.
Since there was a difference between the ages of the learners that have
participated in the present study, further exploration is needed to examine whether the different ages of learners are influenced differently by the ETAs. This study examined the impact of English Teaching Assistants on English learning in Taiwan; however, not all of the ETAs in Taiwan teach the same age of learners. ETAs may be required to use different methods and ways to interact with learners depending on the learners they teach. Furthermore, Fathman (1975) suggested that learners with different ages go through different aspects of second/foreign language acquisition processes. Thus, with the different ages of the learners attending the ETAs classes, it is possible and, recommended to explore the impact of ETAs on Taiwanese learners of different ages which will help to explore further patterns on EFL learners‟ attitude and motivation
77
towards English learning and ETAs views on teaching EFL learners.
For future research, a smaller scale could be analysed quantitatively to
explore specific areas. First, this study has explored a large number of learners;however, only a general idea of learners all over Taiwan can be seen, which shouldn‟t account for all the different learners in Taiwan. Thus, a smaller scale will allow for a more convincing result on specific EFL learners. For instance, an attitude and motivation questionnaire for a specific area of Taiwan, such as the learners in the northern and southern areas of Taiwan, may be examined. Second, examining the general idea for Taiwanese learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning with the presence of ETAs can be used to find a specific area of learners that may be picked out to explore further patterns through a smaller scale quantitatively. This way, other areas such as the change in learners‟ listening and speaking abilities may also be explored as the ETAs are always exposing their learners to English and that their greatest strength is to improve their learners‟ listening and speaking skills. Thus, a further improvement of the learners‟ English proficiency may be discovered. Last, by taking the attitude and motivation survey, a mini-questionnaire may be conducted quantitatively in order to explore further ideas on the learners‟ attitude and motivation in class with the ETAs. Other areas such as the learners‟ preferred class activities and their views on ETAs may be added to this mini-questionnaire, which will also help to serve as a basis to look into further patterns when conducting interviews and
classroom observations.
78
REFERENCES
Abu‐Rabia, S. (2004). Teachers‟ Role, Learners‟ Gender Differences, and FL Anxiety Among Seventh‐Grade Students Studying English as a FL. Educational
Psychology, 24(5), 711-721.
Árva, V. & Medgyes, P. (2000). Native and non-native teachers in the classroom.
System, 28, 355-372.
Bamberger, M. (2012). Introduction to mixed methods in impact evaluation.Impact
Evaluation Notes, 3, 1-38.
Barratt, L., & Kontra, E. H. (2000). Native‐English‐Speaking Teachers in Cultures Other Than Their Own. TESOL journal, 9(3), 19-23.
Batstone, R. (2002). Making sense of new language: A discourse perspective.
Language Awareness, 11(1), 14-29.
Bernaus, M., & Gardner, R. C. (2008). Teacher motivation strategies, student perceptions, student motivation, and English achievement. The Modern
Language Journal, 92(3), 387-401.
Blake, R. L. (1989). Integrating quantitative and qualitative methods in family research. Family Systems Medicine, 7(4), 411.
Borg, S. (2006). The distinctive characteristics of foreign language teachers.
Language Teaching Research, 10(1), 3-31.
Braskamp, L. A. (2008). Developing global citizens. Journal of College and
Character, 10(1).
Brosh, H. (1996). Perceived characteristics of the effective language teacher. Foreign
Language Annals, 29, 125-138.
Buckley, F. (2000). Team Teaching: What, Why and How?. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
79
Burstall, C. (1975). French in the primary school: the British experiment. Canadian
Modern Language Review, 31, 388-402.
Carless, D., & Walker, E. (2006). Effective team teaching between local and native-speaking English teachers. Language and Education, 20(6), 463–477.
Chamber, G. N. (1999). Motivating language learners (Vol. 12). Multilingual Matters.
Chern, C. (2003). English language teaching in Taiwan today. In W. K. Ho & R. Y. L.
Wong (Eds.), English language teaching in East Asia today: Changing politics
and practices (pp. 427-437). Singapore: Eastern Universities Press.
Cheung, Y.L. (2002). The attitude of university students in Hong Kong towards native
and non-native teachers of English. Unpublished Master Degree Thesis. The
Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.Chun, S. Y. (2014). EFL learners' beliefs about native and non-native
English-speaking teachers: perceived strengths, weaknesses, and preferences. Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 35(6), 563-579.
Cresswell, J. W., & Plano-Clark, V. (2007). Mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Csizér, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The internal structure of language learning motivation and its relationship with language choice and learning effort. The
Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 19-36.
Csizér, K., Kormos, J. & Sarkadi, Á. (2010). „The dynamics of language learning attitudes and motivation: Lessons from an interview study of dyslexic language learners‟. Modern Language Journal, 94, 470-84.
Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. The
modern language journal, 78(3), 273-284.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivation and second language acquisition (Vol. 23). Natl Foreign Lg Resource Ctr.
80
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in
second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The psychology of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dornyei, Z., Csizer, K., & Nemeth, N. (2006). Motivational dynamics, language attitudes and language globalisation: A Hungarian perspective. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.
Driscoll, D. L., Appiah-Yeboah, A., Salib, P., & Rupert, D. J. (2007). Merging qualitative and quantitative data in mixed methods research: How to and why not. Ecological and Environmental Anthropology (University of Georgia), 18.
Fathman, A. (1975). The relationship between age and second language productive ability. Language learning, 25(2), 245-253.
Fattig, M. L., & Taylor, M. T. (2008). Co-Teaching in the Differentiated Classroom:
Successful Collaboration, Lesson Design, and Classroom Management, Grades 5-12. John Wiley & Sons.
Fengying, M. (2003). Motivating students by modifying evaluation methods.
InEnglisch Teaching Forum (Vol. 41, p. 1).
Fulbright English Teaching Assistant Program. (2014). Evaluation Report.
Washington, DC:EurekaFacts, LLC.
Gagnon, M. (1974). Quelques facteurs déterminant l„attitude vis-à-vis l„anglais, language seconde. In R. Darnell (Ed.), Linguistic diversity in Canadian society, 2. Edmonton: Linguistic Research.
Gardner, R. C. (1960). Motivational variables in second-language acquisition. PhD Thesis: McGill University.
81
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Role
of Attitudes and Motivation. Edward Arnold.
Gardner, R. C. (2008). Individual differences in second and foreign language learning.
In Encyclopedia of Language and Education (pp. 1135-1146). Springer US.
Gardner, R. C. (2010). Motivation and second language acquisition: The
socio-educational model (Vol. 10). Peter Lang.
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1959). Motivational variables in second-language acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de
psychologie, 13(4), 266.
Gardner, R. C., Masgoret, A. M., & Tremblay, P. F. (1999). Home background characteristics and second language learning. Journal of language and social
psychology, 18(4), 419-437.
Gardner R. C. & Smythe, P.C. (1975). Second language acquisition. A social psychological approach. Research Bulletin, 332. Department of Psychology.
London, Canada: University of Western Ontario.
Garland, R. (1991). The mid-point on a rating scale: Is it desirable. Marketing
bulletin, 2(1), 66-70.
Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Toward a conceptual
framework for mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational evaluation and
policy analysis, 11(3), 255-274.
Hashwani, M. S. (2008). Students‟ attitudes, motivation and anxiety towards English language learning. Journal of Research and Reflections in Education, 2(2).
Hersh, R. (2007). Terms of engagement. Peer Review, 9(3) 30-31. Retrieved August 12, 2008, from
http://www.aacu.org/peerreview/pr-su07/documents/pr-su07_reality.pdf
82
Hitchcock, G., & Hughes, D. (1989). Research and the teacher: A qualitative
introduction to school-based research. London: Routledge.
Huang, F. C. (2011). English co-teaching in elementary school: A case study of the
English co-teaching program in Kaohsiung city. Unpublished Doctor‟s
Dissertation. National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan.Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. Sociolinguistics, 269293, 269-293.
Jakobovits, L. A. (1970). Foreign Language Learning; A Psycholinguistic Analysis of the Issues.
Jeon, M., & Lee, J. (2006). Hiring native-speaking English teachers in East Asian countries. English Today, 22(04), 53-58.
Kormos, J., & Csizér, K. (2008). Age‐related differences in the motivation of learning English as a foreign language: Attitudes, selves, and motivated learning
behavior. Language Learning, 58(2), 327-355.
Kormos, J., Kiddle, T., & Csizér, K. (2011). Systems of goals, attitudes, and self-related beliefs in second-language-learning motivation. Applied Linguistics, 32(5), 495-516.
Krashen, S. D. (1987). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall International.
Krashen, S. (1991). The input hypothesis: An update. In J. E. Alatis (Ed.),
Georgetown University round the table on languages and linguistics 1991:
Linguistics and language pedagogy: The state of the art (pp. 409-431).
Washington, D. C: Georgetown University Press.
Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom.
83
Krosnick, J. A., Judd, C. M., & Wittenbrink, B. (2005). The measurement of attitudes. The handbook of attitudes, 21-76.
Lam, Z. (1973). Contradictions of teaching rationale: Introduction to pedagogy.
Merhavia: Hapoalim Publications (in Hebrew).
Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J. M. (2005). What do students think about the pros and cons of having a native speaker teacher?. In Non-native language teachers (pp.
217-241). Springer US.
Lehmann, C. (2006). Motivation in language: Attempt at systematization. Retrieved from http://www.uni-erfurt.de/sprachwissenschaft/personal/lehmann/CLPubl/
Llurda, E., & Huguet, N. (2003). Self-awareness in NNS EFL primary and secondary school teachers. Language Awareness, 12(3-4), 220-233.
Luo, W. H. (2007). A study of native English-speaking teacher programs in
elementary schools in Taiwan. Asia Pacific Education Review, 8(2), 311-320.
Ma, F., & Ping, L. (2012). Advantages and disadvantages of native‐and nonnative‐
English‐speaking teachers: Student perceptions in Hong Kong. TESOL
Quarterly, 46(2), 280-305.
Mahboob, A. (2003). Status of non-native English-speaking teachers in the United
States. Unpublished Master Degree Thesis. Indiana University, Bloomington,
IN.Masgoret, A., & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: A meta-analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates.
Language Learning, 53, 1, 123-163.
McNamara, C. (1999). General guidelines for conducting interviews. Retrieved from
http://www.mapnp.org/library/evaluatn/intrview.htm
84
Medgyes, P. (1992). Native or non-native: who's worth more?. ELT journal, 46(4), 340-349.
Medgyes, P. (1994). The Non-native Teacher. London: MacMillan.
Melton, C. D. (1990). Bridging the cultural gap: A study of Chinese students' learning style preferences. RELC Journal, 21(1), 29-54.
Montalvo, G. P. (1998). Pleasing the Teacher. Dissertation Abstracts International
Section A: Humanities & Social Sciences, 58(8-A).
Moussu, L. M. (2006). Native and Nonnative English-Speaking English as a Second Language Teachers: Student Attitudes, Teacher Self-Perceptions, and Intensive English Administrator Beliefs and Practices. Online Submission.
Moussu, L. (2010). Influence of Teacher‐Contact Time and Other Variables on ESL Students' Attitudes Towards Native‐and Nonnative‐English‐Speaking Teachers.
TESOL Quarterly, 44(4), 746-768.
Muhammad Athar, H. (2011). Relationship Of Classroom Environment With Anxiety
And Attitude Of Secondary School Students Towards The Learning Of English
(Doctoral dissertation, International Islamic University, Islamabad).National Immigration Agency, MOI. Retrieved November 25, 2015 from
https://www.immigration.gov.tw/lp.asp?ctNode=29986&CtUnit=16677&BaseD SD=7&mp=2
Noels, K. A. (2001). New orientations in language learning motivation: Towards a model of intrinsic, extrinsic, and integrative orientations and motivation.
Motivation and second language acquisition, 23, 43-68.
Nunan, D. (2003). The Impact of English as a global language on educational policies and practices in the Asia-Pacific region. TESOL QUARTERLY, 37, 589-613.
85
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. SAGE Publications, inc.
Pennycook, A. (2014). The cultural politics of English as an international language.
Routledge.
Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., & Boyle, R. A. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change:
The role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. Review of Educational research, 63(2), 167-199.
Rao, Z. (2010). Chinese students' perceptions of native English-speaking teachers in EFL teaching. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 31(1), 55–68.
Reid, J. M. (1987). The learning style preferences of ESL students. TESOL
quarterly, 21(1), 87-111.
Richard-Amato, P. A. (2010). Making it happen: From interactive to participatory
language teaching: Evolving theory and practice. Pearson Education.
Riley, P.A. (2008). Reform in English language teaching in Japan. Retrieved from
http://opac.kanto-gakuin.ac.jp/cgi- bin/retrieve/sr_bookview.cgi/U_CHARSET.utf-8/NI20000267/Body/link/105-111.pdf
Robens, S. (1977). Students' self-perception and their relation to teachers-parents.
Ramat Gan: Hapoalim Publications (in Hebrew).
Rossman, G. B., & Wilson, B. L. (1994). Numbers and words revisited: Being
“shamelessly eclectic”. Quality and Quantity, 28(3), 315-327.
Russell, J., & Spada, N. (2006). The effectiveness of corrective feedback for the acquisition of L2 grammar. Synthesizing research on language learning and
teaching, 133-164.
86
Ryan, A. M., & Patrick, H. (2001). The classroom social environment and changes in adolescents‟ motivation and engagement during middle school. American
Educational Research Journal, 38(2), 437-460.
Samimy, K. K., & Brutt-Griffler, J. (1999). To be a native or non-native speaker:
Perceptions of “non-native” students in a graduate TESOL program. Non-native
educators in English language teaching, 127-144.
Sandoval-Pineda, A. (2011). Attitude, Motivation and English Language Learning in a Mexican College Context.
Saville-Troike, M. (2006). Introducing second language acquisition. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, R., Borai, D. & Kassabgy, O. (1996). Foreign language motivation: Internal structure and external connections. In Oxford, R. (Eds). Language learning
motivation: Pathways to new century. Vol. 11, 9-70.
Schmuck, R., & Schmuck, P. (1988). Group processes in the classroom. 15th Edition.
Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. Brown.
Singh, K., Granville, M., & Dika, S. (2002). Mathematics and science achievement:
Effects of motivation, interest, and academic engagement. The Journal of
Educational Research, 95(6), 323-332.
Sook, K.J., & Norton. B. (2002). Language planning in Korea: The new elementary English program. In J. W. Tollefson (Ed.), Language policies in education:
critical issues (pp. 245-266). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sparks, R., & Lipka, R. P. (1992). Characteristics of master teachers: Personality factors, self-concept, locus of control, and pupils‟ control ideology. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 5, 303-311.
87
Stansfield, C. W., & Winke, P. M. (2008). Testing aptitude for second language learning. In Encyclopedia of Language and Education (pp. 2226-2239).
Springer US.
Stewart, V. (2007). Becoming citizens of the world.
Storey, P., Luk, J., Gray, J., Wang-Kho, E., Lin, A. & Berry, R.S.Y. (2001). Monitoring
and evaluation of the native-speaking English teacher scheme. Unpublished
Research Report. Hong Kong Institute of Education.Tajino, A., & Tajino, Y. (2000). Native and non-native: what can they offer? Lessons from team-teaching in Japan. ELT journal, 54(1), 3-11.
Tarnopolsky, O. (2000). EFL Teaching and EFL Teachers in the Global Expansion of English. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 16(2), 25-42.
Truscott, J. (1999). What's wrong with oral grammar correction. Canadian Modern
Language Review, 55(4), 437-456.
Vansteenkiste, M., Zhou, M., Lens, W., & Soenens, B. (2005). Experiences of autonomy and control among Chinese learners: Vitalizing or immobilizing?.
Journal of educational psychology, 97(3), 468.
VanPatten, B. (1990). Attending to form and content in the input. Studies in second
language acquisition, 12(03), 287-301.
Vigil, N. A., & Oller, J. W. (1976). RULE FOSSILIZATION: A TENTATIVE MODEL1. Language learning, 26(2), 281-295.
Walkinshaw, I., & Duong, O. T. H. (2012). Native- and non-native speaking English teachers in Vietnam: Weighing up the benefits. TESL-EJ, 16(3), 1-17.
Weiss, R. S. (1995). Learning from strangers: The art and method of qualitative
interview studies. Simon and Schuster.
88
White, L. (1991). Adverb placement in second language acquisition: Some effects of positive and negative evidence in the classroom. Second language
research, 7(2), 133-161.
Williams, M., & Burden, L. R. (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers.
Cambridge University Press.
Wisdom, J., & Creswell, J. W. (2013). Mixed methods: Integrating quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis while studying patient-centered medical home models. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
Young, T. J., & Walsh, S. (2010). Which English? Whose English? An investigation of
„non-native‟teachers' beliefs about target varieties. Language, Culture and
Curriculum, 23(2), 123-137.
Zandvliet, D. B., & Fraser, B. J. (2005). Physical and psychosocial environments associated with networked classrooms. Learning Environments Research, 8(1), 1-17.
89
APPENDIXES
Appendix A: Explanation of the Final Version of the AMTB
The original version of the AMTB contained many items. In order to simplify the questionnaire, the original version was modified to meet the needs of the participants in this study. The following are steps for adapting the AMTB:
(a) All items that are negatively keyed should be removed to prevent learners‟
confusion (Brown & Rodgers, 2002). A negatively keyed item such as “我會聽不 懂外國老師說的話” („I can‟t understand what the teacher says in English during class‟) should be changed to a positively keyed item such as “我可以聽得懂外國 老師說的話” („I can understand what the teacher says in English during class‟).
(b) All items should be translated into Chinese to prevent any misunderstanding since learners are elementary and junior high school learners.
(c) According to Dörnyei (2001), any instrument should be adapted “…because of the great diversity of language-learning environments and because of the social sensitivity of attitude/motivation questionnaires, no battery can be used
mechanically (i.e. without considerable adjustments) in contexts other than where it was adapted”. Thus, all items that do not fit into the Taiwanese context should be modified. For example, an item such as “You can always trust native English speakers” should be modified or removed since English is a foreign language in Taiwan; thus, there are not as many native English speakers as compared to countries that speak English as a second language.
(d) The instrument should be piloted with learners (ages 10-13) from Taipei city since the goal of this study is to explore the learners‟ attitudes and motivation of younger grades toward English learning. A suitable and most convenient junior
90
high school can be chosen at random, with the exception that their English proficiency levels are evenly distributed.
(e) The internal consistency reliability of the questionnaire should be tested so as to make the necessary changes if needed. The reliability coefficients should be at least 0.70, otherwise the questionnaire will prove to not be reliable and changes need to be made.
(f) According to Garland‟s (1991) study on whether a mid-point is desirable on a rating scale, a four-point forces a respondent to choose a side. Thus, the items in on the questionnaire will be measured by a four-point Likert scale.
According to Gardner (2004), the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery measures 6 variables: integrativeness, attitudes toward the learning situation, motivation, language anxiety, instrumentality, and one additional measure (parental
encouragement). Since instrumentality is said to be difficult to measure due to the many practical reasons one has for learning a second language which could be
unrelated to each other, thus not forming a common bond like the integrative reasons.
Even though one measure of instrumentality, instrumental orientation, is one that is most frequently adopted, the items used to measure it are not things elementary or junior high school learners would think about yet. For example, “Studying English is important because I will need it for my career”; elementary or junior high school learners normally do not worry or think about their career or future jobs yet.
After pilot testing, the final version of the AMTB for this study measures the following 5 variables. Each variable was translated into several statements in order to test learners‟ motivation in this study. A brief explanation of how the statements were selected is provided below.
91
1. Integrativeness: This refers to an individual‟s view of the importance of English, leading to one‟s own desire and willingness to learn English.
(a) Integrative Orientation: The purpose of this scale is to assess the extent to which the social aspects of English communication are seen as important to the individual. Through this scale, it can be explored whether learners find English an important language to learn and their reasons for learning English.
(b) Attitudes toward English speaking people: The focus is to assess a more general aspect of integrativeness referring to target groups who speak English. This scale provides information on learner‟s attitudes toward English speaking communities in general.
(c) Interest in foreign language: The focus is to assess a more general aspect of integrativeness referring to any other language group. Through this scale, the learners‟ general interest in or tolerance to other language groups or cultures may be assessed.
2. Attitude towards Learning Situation:
(a) English Teacher Evaluation: The focus is to assess the degree of positive attitude towards the English teacher. Thus, the learners‟ likes, attitude and motivation towards their ETAs can be explored in order to better understand the impact of ETAs on learners‟ learning process.
(b) English course evaluation: The focus is to assess the degree of positive attitude towards the English course. Learners‟ attitude and motivation
towards the ETA‟s English class can be explored to see how the environment created by the ETA can influence the learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning.
92
3. Motivation:
(a) Motivational Intensity: This is considered to be an essential component necessary to develop proficiency in the second language because it reflects the effort being put into learning the materials and skills of another language.
It focuses on the persistency, consistency and determination in learning a foreign language. From this scale, how much effort the learners put in to learn English, how much the learner wants to learn English, and how much the learner enjoys learning English can be explored to compare with their own perception of their attitude and motivation towards English learning.
4. Language anxiety
(a) Language Class Anxiety: The focus is placed on the language anxiety learners may experience in the language classroom environment. Previous research has shown that language anxiety is related with achievement in a second language (Horwitz & Young, 1991). Since ETAs only speak English in class, learners may feel a little anxious, especially if they have not taken any classes with native English speaking teachers or if they have a low proficiency in English. From this scale, learners‟ anxiety can be explored to see how it may affect their attitude and motivation towards English learning.
(b) Language Use Anxiety: For learners that have been studying English for
(b) Language Use Anxiety: For learners that have been studying English for