外籍助教對英語學習之影響：以台灣學童為例

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學英語學系碩士論文 Master‟s Thesis Department of English National Taiwan Normal University. 外籍助教對英語學習之影響：以台灣學童為例. The Impact of English Teaching Assistants on English Learning in Taiwan. 指導教授：吳. 美. 貞. 博. Advisor: Dr. Mei-Chen Wu 研究生：顏. 欣. 柔. 中華民國一零五年一月 January 2016. 士.

(2) 摘要本研究旨在探討外籍助教對台灣學童的英語學習之影響，主要是為了研究：台灣學童在學年初及學年末的英語學習態度、外籍助教(ETA)在學年初及學年末對於學生的英語學習態度的看法、本國英文老師(LET)在學年初及學年末對於學生的英語學習態度的看法和外籍助教如何影響學生在教室內的學習動機。參與本研究的受試者來自台灣六個地區：台北、宜蘭、台東、高雄、台中和金門。此研究參與的受試者包含 4056 位學生(10-13 歲學生)、149 位老師 (56 外籍助教和 93 本國英文老師)。受試者必須填寫一份態度與動機問卷來測量學生的英語學習態度。針對學生及老師所填寫的問卷進行交叉分析，可得知學生在學年初及學年末的英語學習態度的概況。最後，透過訪問和課室觀察來提供學生動機與態度更多的資訊，並且深入了解學習情境、教師的角色、特定的文化主題，以及對於學生動機與態度具影響力的教學策略。本研究分析結果如下：第一，學生有正面的英語學習態度，且能看出學生的英語學習態度在學年末相較於學年初有明顯的進步。第二，老師相信學生有正面的英語學習態度。老師們都相信學生的學習動機與態度皆在學年末提升，而從態度與動機問卷來看，外籍助教在學年初給的分數比本國英文老師還要低，究其原因在於不同的老師對於學生的熟悉程度、看法、文化背景、學習經驗及對於台灣的教育體系的了解程度不同。第三，從訪問和課室觀察可見外籍助教對於以下面向的影響：課堂氣氛之改變、老師們以及學生的互動、文化交流以及視野拓寬(全球化)。最後，根據本研究結果，祈使未來研究者及英文老師以此為基礎，更進一步探究學生的英語學習態度在外籍助教指導之下的具體變化，並深入探析外. i.

(3) 籍助教如何影響學生學習態度、動機之改變。關鍵字：態度、動機、外籍助教、本國老師、協同教學、英語學習者. ii.

(4) ABSTRACT This study aimed to investigate the impact of English Teaching Assistants (ETA) on young Taiwanese learners‟ English learning in Taiwan. Research questions were designed to examine: young Taiwanese learners‟ perception of their motivation in the beginning and at the end of the school year, the English Teaching Assistants‟ (ETAs‟) perception of their learners‟ motivation in the beginning and at the end of the school year, the Local English Teachers‟ (LETs‟) perception of their learners‟ motivation in the beginning and at the end of the school year, and how the ETAs influence their learners‟ motivation towards English learning in class. The participants were learners and teachers (ETAs and LETs) from six areas: Taipei, Yilan, Taitung, Kaohsiung, Taichung, and Kinmen. 4056 young Taiwanese learners (ranging from 10-13 years old), 149 teachers (56 ETAs and 93 LETs) participated in this study. An attitude and motivation questionnaire was employed to assess the learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning with the presence of the ETAs at the beginning and end of the school year. The teachers (both ETAs and LETs) were also asked to complete an attitude and motivation questionnaire based on their perception of their learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning. Cross tabulation was utilized to analyze the learners‟ and teachers‟ questionnaires, examining the general idea of all the learners‟ attitude and motivation, and the teachers‟ perception of their learners‟ attitude and motivation. Finally, interviews and classroom observations were conducted to explore a more in-depth understanding of learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning, and the impact of ETAs on learners throughout the school year. The results can be summarized as follows. First, the cross tabulation showed that the learners‟ attitude and motivation, in general, were positive, and that there was. iii.

(5) an increase in their attitude and motivation from the pretest to the posttest. Second, from the cross tabulation, the teachers (both ETAs and LETs), in general, perceived their learners‟ to have a positive attitude and high motivation towards English learning with the presence of ETAs. Even though there was also an increased number of teachers‟ (both ETAs‟ and LETs‟) who perceived their learners to have a positive attitude and high motivation in the posttest, the ETAs had given lower scores in the questionnaires at the beginning of the year compared to the LETs. This difference in perception between the ETAs and LETs may be explained by the teachers‟ familiarity with learners, teachers‟ different views, teachers‟ different cultural contexts and educational experiences, and their knowledge of Taiwan‟s educational system. Third, the interviews and classroom observations showed the impact of ETAs on the learners in the following areas: change of classroom atmosphere, interaction between teachers and learners, cultural exchanges, and broadening of perspectives (globalization). At last, based on the findings of this study, pedagogical implications are offered for future researchers and English teachers, hoping to shed light on the learners‟ English learning attitude and motivation with the presence and the impact of English Teaching Assistants on young EFL learners in Taiwan.. Keywords: Attitude, Motivation, English Teaching Assistants (ETAs), Local English Teachers (LETs), Co-teaching, EFL learners. iv.

(6) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest appreciation and thanks to many people that have supported and helped me throughout the course of this thesis writing. First and foremost, I offer my sincerest gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Mei-Chen Wu, who has been a tremendous mentor to me. Her expertise, enthusiasm, vast knowledge, and guidance added considerably to my graduate studies. I am thankful for her consistent encouragement and insightful remarks that had provided me with the confidence and strength to get through difficult times. Her ability to get me back on track and to boost my confidence so that I can take up the next challenge continues to amaze me. I am also grateful for her trust and all the part-time and tutor job opportunities she‟s recommended me to. Thank you for all the lovely chats and wise advice, you always know a solution to my questions and problems. I could not have asked for a better advisor! I wish to also show my deepest thanks to my committee members, Dr. YiChien Lee and Dr. Wen-Jiun Huang for their valuable ideas and advice. Their professional comments helped me to better improve the quality of my study. A special thank you goes to Fulbright, Taipei Municipal Xinxing Junior High School, all the ETAs (especially Aria and Rebekah), LETs, and students that have participated in this study. I will not forget the teachers‟ (ETAs‟ and LETs‟) efforts in helping me complete all the questionnaires and arranging classroom observations, and the ETAs‟ and students‟ voluntary participation during interviews. I thank my fellow NTNU TESOL classmates, Jeanini, Christine, Ruby, Melody, Connie, Jason, David, Yama, Eric, and Ray for all the enjoyable times spent inside and outside class. Special thanks to my partner, Puma, for all the fun moments we had together during classroom observations and interviews. In addition, I‟d also. v.

(7) like to thank Roxanne, all the 種子老師, Jean, and Brown from my part-time job at Faith Hope & Love Foundation for Education for helping me gain knowledge on teaching through video-making, and my tutees and their parents (especially little Chloe and her mother, Sharon) for being ever so kind and generous to me. I owe my gratitude to my best friends from NTNU MATH: Yuyu, Wendy, Scott, Ah Chao, Hong-Ying, Jeff, Bread, Jerry, and my badminton partner, Book. A day filled with smiles and laughter is always well spent with these favorite people of mine. Many thanks to my friend in South Africa, Amy, for all the awesome chats on LINE, distance doesn‟t keep us from chatting. My greatest appreciation goes to Chris for always being there for me when I was down and lost hope, his continuous patience and support always puts a smile on my face. Last, but not least, without the love and support from my family, nothing could have been possible. I love my parents for their unconditional love, support and tolerance. They have provided me with many opportunities to learn as a child and have always taught me life lessons that have kept me strong during my undergraduate and graduate studies in Taiwan. My sister, Hanna, has always been the closest person to me. It‟s always comforting to FaceTime and chat to someone who will always be a good listener and never judge you for who you are. To my boetie, Colin, who is 7 years younger than me, you always have a way to get me laughing with your jokes. I thank my family for always being there for me.. vi.

(8) TABLE OF CONTENTS. 摘要............................................................................................................................. i ABSTRACT ..............................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1 1.1 Motivation and Background ................................................................................ 1 1.2 Rationale and Scope of the Study ........................................................................ 3 1.3 Research Gap ....................................................................................................... 4 1.4 Research Questions .............................................................................................. 6 1.5 Organization of the Study .................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 7 2.1 Motivation and Attitude ....................................................................................... 7 2.2 Co-teaching .......................................................................................................... 9 2.3 Factors Influencing Motivation.......................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 14 3.1 Research Design................................................................................................. 14 3.2 Participants ......................................................................................................... 16 Learners................................................................................................................ 16 Teachers ............................................................................................................... 16 vii.

(9) 3.3 Data Collection Procedures................................................................................ 17 Questionnaires: The Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) ......................... 17 Interviews ............................................................................................................. 19 Classroom Observations ...................................................................................... 19 Field Notes ........................................................................................................... 20 3.4 Procedures of the Study ..................................................................................... 20 3.5 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 21 Quantitative Analysis ........................................................................................... 21 Qualitative Analysis ............................................................................................. 22 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................ 23 4.1 Quantitative Results ........................................................................................... 23 Summary of Learners‟ Findings ........................................................................... 29 Summary of Teachers‟ Findings........................................................................... 44 4.2 Qualitative Results ............................................................................................. 46 Impact of ETAs on Learners‟ Motivation ............................................................ 46 Summary .............................................................................................................. 66 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION...................................................................................... 71 5.1 Summary of the Findings ................................................................................... 71 5.2 Pedagogical Implications ................................................................................... 73 5.3 Limitations of the Study..................................................................................... 75 5.4 Suggestions for Future Research ....................................................................... 76. viii.

(10) REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 78 APPENDIXES ............................................................................................................. 89 Appendix A: Explanation of the Final Version of the AMTB.................................. 89 Appendix B: A Questionnaire on Learners‟ Motivation toward English Learning with the Presence of ETAs (Learners) ..................................................................... 94 Appendix C: A Questionnaire of Teachers‟ Perception on Learners‟ Motivation toward English Learning with the Presence of ETAs (ETAs).................................. 95 Appendix D: A Questionnaire of Teachers‟ Perception on Learners‟ Motivation toward English Learning with the Presence of ETAs (LETs) .................................. 96 Appendix E: Pilot Test (Reliability Test) ................................................................. 97 Appendix F: Cross Tabulation Results of Learners‟ Questionnaires ....................... 98 (Pretest & Posttest) .................................................................................................. 98 Appendix G: Cross Tabulation Results of LETs‟ (nonNative) & .......................... 118 ETAs‟ (Native) Questionnaires (Pretest & Posttest) .............................................. 118 Appendix H: T-Test for Learners‟ Questionnaires (Pretest & Posttest) ................. 132 Appendix I: T-Test for ETAs & LETs Questionnaires (Pretest & Posttest)........... 133. ix.

(11) LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Foreign Residents in Taiwan .......................................................................... 2 Table 2 The Procedures of the Study ......................................................................... 21 Table 3 Summary Table of Average High Scores for the Pretest and Posttest (Learners) ..................................................................................................... 29 Table 4 Number of Teachers for Pretest and Posttest Scores (Item 5) ...................... 36 Table 5 Number of Teachers for Pretest and Posttest Scores (Item 9) ...................... 37 Table 6 Number of Teachers for Pretest and Posttest Scores (Item 10) .................... 39 Table 7 Number of Teachers for Pretest and Posttest Scores (Item 7) ...................... 40 Table 8 Number of Teachers for Pretest and Posttest Scores (Item 8) ...................... 41 Table 9 Number of Teachers for Pretest and Posttest Scores (Item 12) .................... 43 Table 10 T-Test for Learners (Pretest & Posttest) .................................................. 132 Table 11 T-Test for LETs & ETAs (Pretest & Posttest) ........................................... 133. x.

(12) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. The diagram of the research design ........................................................... 15 Figure 2. The total number of times given by ETAs for each score (Pretest & Posttest) ...................................................................................................... 34 Figure 3. The total number of times given by LETs for each score (Pretest & Posttest) ...................................................................................................... 35. xi.

(13) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Motivation and Background English has become a very popular language to learn in many Asian countries. English is now not only a communication tool for international business or educational purposes, but also the language of communication for interconnection and cultural exchange for people from different countries (Pennycook, 2014). Due to the popularity and use of English nowadays, many Asian countries have been trying to find ways to improve their people‟s English proficiency (Nunan, 2003). These countries include Singapore, where English has become one of its official languages for over a decade now; Japan, where many changes have been made in the high school‟s English curriculum (Riley, 2008); Korea, where the government has started to introduce English classes in the third grade of elementary school, creating an English environment such as English Villages for learners, and training and bringing in many English teachers (Sook & Norton, 2002); and China, where English is a compulsory subject in elementary schools and the main language of instruction in technical courses in colleges and universities. Taiwan has also made effort in fostering English education and learning. Apart from including English as a compulsory subject in elementary schools and creating English learning environments (such as English Villages), measures have been taken to replace the traditional teacher-centered methodology, the Grammar Translation Method, which focuses highly on grammar rules and translation. Even though the Grammar Translation Method is widely used in EFL classrooms (Chern, 2003), especially in the past, it has been considered to be ineffective for learners‟ communicative competence. According to Hymes (1972), in order for learners to achieve communicative competence, it is important to allow learners to learn a 1.

(14) language in communicative situations so that they may be able to use the language appropriately in different situations. Past research have looked into the effectiveness of co-teaching and found that one measure that Taiwanese government has taken to improve the learning of English in Taiwan is the continuous recruitment of native English speakers to teach in public schools. More specifically, the policy of introducing native-speaking English teachers in Taiwanese classrooms was put into practice in 2003 (Luo, 2007). Furthermore, more and more foreigners are coming to Taiwan to teach English. From table 1, it can be seen that teachers come in third place, when only including the active foreigners. There is definitely an increase in the population of foreign residents in Taiwan and that increase in Taiwan foreign residents are mainly English teachers. Thus, employing native English speaking teachers has become a very common act in Taiwan. Table 1 Foreign Residents in Taiwan. Source: National Immigration Agency, MOI. (As dated on 2015/11/25). 2.

(15) Since then, there have been many other native-speaking English teacher programs in different parts of Taiwan. The rise of such type of programs has caused researchers to examine its effectiveness on English learning (e.g. Medgyes, 1992, 1994; Samimy & Brutt-Griffler, 1999; Tarnopolsky, 2000; Rao, 2010; Ma & Ping, 2012). Following the Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) Program in Japan, the English Program in Korea (EPIK), and the Native-speaking English Teachers (NET) Scheme of recruiting native English speakers to co-teach with their local English teachers in public schools, a similar program to the ones mentioned above has been launched in Taiwan as well. The Fulbright ETA Program began in 2008 where young grantees of the Fulbright English Teaching Assistantship (ETAs) from the United States are recruited to co-teach with local English teachers (LETs) in Taiwan, hoping to be able to not only promote learners‟ communicative competence, but to also improve Taiwanese learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning. The ETAs co-teach approximately 16-17 periods of classes a week with the LETs. They are expected to design the lesson and discuss with the LETs before class and to speak English during class. The LETs serve as assistants for the ETAs, helping the ETAs with classroom management, conducting the class, and to translate when necessary. The ETAs are usually the main teacher in these English classrooms; thus, the ETAs play an important role in influencing learners.. 1.2 Rationale and Scope of the Study Fulbright English teaching assistant program is one such program that has placed English teaching assistants in different areas of Taiwan to help provide English instruction to Taiwanese elementary and junior high school learners. Informal interviews with the program participants and annual reports and workshops of the program have shown this program to be beneficial to not just learners, but also. 3.

(16) Taiwanese English teachers and English teaching assistants from the United States. Although the program seems to generate a positive feedback from the participants, limited research has investigated the actual impact of such a program on English learning. More specifically, questions such as the influence of the English teaching assistants on learners‟ motivation to learn English, on English listening ability, and on English speaking ability remains to be explored. When introducing native-speaking English teachers into the classrooms, one area that researchers have explored is learners‟ belief about the benefits of nativespeaking teachers (e.g. Moussu, 2006; Chun, 2014). One implication of these studies is that since learners felt native-speaking teachers‟ classrooms were more interactive; and therefore the willingness and motivation to learn the target language seemed to be stronger. However, many of the studies did not actually examine learners‟ motivational change during the presence of native-speaking teachers. Thus, this study intends to explore the learners‟ attitude and motivation change towards English learning with the presence of ETAs. More specifically, one question that will guide this study is how ETAs actually influence learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English.. 1.3 Research Gap This study intends to address gaps found in two areas of literature. The first one is the motivation of language learning, and the second one is the contribution of native-speaking teachers in the foreign language classrooms. Since motivation is an important predictor of language achievement for learners, it is important to examine how different variables such as the learning environment, the curriculum, the characteristics of a teacher, and the learners themselves can influence learners‟ motivation. Indeed, studies in the past have examined the relationship between. 4.

(17) motivation and various factors. However, very few have actually tracked the changes in motivation when a learning environment is changed by the addition of a native English-speaking teacher in a language classroom. Furthermore, the addition of a native-speaking teacher has raised the debate of the best combination of teachers in the language classroom. As well, studies have examined the different combinations of teachers in the classroom to provide the most effective learning. Some have investigated a single teacher (native-speaking or nonnative speaking) classroom, while others have examined classrooms with teachers coworking together (native with a non-native speaking teacher). Previous research on co-teaching, and its advantages and disadvantages have shown that learners are able to gain cultural knowledge and insights from this kind of co-teaching learning environment (e.g., Medgyes, 1994; Barratt & Kontra, 2000). Although it has been found that different combination of teachers provides different benefits to learners, very few studies have cited the actual impact of a native-speaking teacher on learner‟s motivation in class. In addition, across the two areas of literature, questionnaires seemed to be the only instrument used (Hashwani, 2008; Sandoval-Pineda, 2011). Thus, it is the intention of this study to utilize not just quantitative questionnaires to track the motivational change, but also qualitative methodology to help provide a more holistic picture of how a native-speaking teacher actually influences a learner‟s motivation in the classroom. Based on the research gap identified, two research questions were developed to guide this study.. 5.

(18) 1.4 Research Questions 1. Regarding learners‟ motivational change towards English learning, a) what are the learners‟ perception of their motivation in the beginning and the end of the school year? b) what are the English Teaching Assistants‟ (ETAs‟) perception of their learners‟ motivation in the beginning and the end of the school year? c) what are the Local English Teachers‟ (LETs‟) perception of their learners‟ motivation in the beginning and the end of the school year? 2. How do the ETAs influence their learners‟ motivation towards English learning in class?. 1.5 Organization of the Study This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one provides the background and motivation of this study on learners‟ motivation with the presence of ETAs. Chapter two offers literature review on this research topic, including (a) learners‟ motivation and attitude in second/foreign language acquisition, (b) learners‟ motivation and attitude influence on achievement, and (c) factors that may influence learner‟s motivation and attitude. Chapter three offers information on the research design, data collection and analysis, and procedures of this study. Chapter four displays and discusses the results of both the quantitative and qualitative data analyses. Chapter five summarizes and concludes the main findings, followed by limitations and suggestions for future research at the end of the chapter.. 6.

(19) CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This study explores the learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning with the presence of English Teaching Assistants (ETAs) in the lower grades of junior high and higher grades of elementary schools. In order to investigate the stated research questions, relevant literature will be reviewed in this chapter.. 2.1 Motivation and Attitude Past research has explored many factors that may possibly influence ones‟ mastery in learning another language (Saville-Troike, 2006). Various variables said to influence second/foreign language acquisition include motivation, attitudes, learning achievements, intelligence, age, and self-identities (Gardner, 1960; Lehmann, 2006; Schmidt, Borai & Kassabgy, 1996). Among them all, attitude and motivation are two of the most frequently investigated and discussed. According to Dörnyei (1994) and Gardner (1985), attitude and motivation is related to how successful one can master a second/foreign language. Furthermore, motivation is said to be one of the most important predictors of second/foreign language learning (Dörnyei, 2005; Dörnyei, Csizér & Nemeth, 2006; Bernaus & Gardner, 2008). Since how well-motivated a learner is toward the target language can influence how successful the learner is in the second language, then the question of what influences the learners‟ motivation will be important to examine. In order to understand factors that influence learner motivation to learn a second language, many scholars such as Gardner examined various factors that may influence motivation. Gardner (1985) defines second language motivation as: “the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favourable attitudes toward learning the language.” He usually relates motivation to attitude because he believes true motivation must be linked to a striving to learn the language. 7.

(20) In his work of motivation, he also stated the importance of attitude in successful second/foreign language learning. Gardner (2008) claimed that attitude and motivation are often treated together “given that attitudes have motivational properties and motivation has attitudinal implications”. Gardner further divided motivation into two aspects: language learning motivation and classroom motivation. Language learning motivation is the main focus of the socio-educational model as it is related to the individual learner‟s motivation to learn a language. Motivation is evaluated by the socio-educational model of second language acquisition in three areas: language learning desire, language learning attitude, and motivational intensity (the amount of effort spent on language learning). These three areas together are a good measure to assess motivation. On the other hand, language classroom motivation is related to the motivation in the classroom that is affected by the classroom environment, the course and the curriculum, the characteristics and role of the teacher, and the learner him/herself. Both aspects of motivation are important for successful mastery of a second/foreign language. Previous research has examined motivation in relation to achievement, and identified motivational variables that would influence a learner. However, among the studies done in the area of motivation, very few studies, if any, have examined how learners‟ motivation may change when a key participant such as a native English speaking teacher is added to the classroom environment. Thus, it is the goal of this study to investigate how learners‟ motivation to learn English may be influenced by the addition of English teaching assistants (ETA) in the classrooms.. 8.

(21) 2.2 Co-teaching The addition of a new key participant in the language classroom has directed research to explore the contribution of native-speaking language teachers in the classrooms. Past research has compared traditional solo-teaching with the co-teaching by native and non-native English teachers in an EFL context. The findings suggest that co-teaching creates a more enjoyable learning environment (Buckley, 2000), helps improve learners with low English proficiency (Storey et al., 2001), and allows more opportunities for learners to use the target language (Barratt & Kontra, 2000; Carless, 2006; Tajino & Tajino, 2000). In addition, research has investigated the advantages and disadvantages of native English speaking teachers (Ârva & Medgyes, 2000; Carless & Walker, 2006; Walkinshaw & Duong, 2012). Native speakers are praised for their authenticity, cultural knowledge, and new methods for teaching (Rao, 2010), which, in turn, make up for non-native English speaking teachers‟ disadvantages. On the other hand, non-native English speaking teachers are valued for their work ethic, strict teaching methods, and experience of being a language learner, which happens to be the native English speaking teachers‟ disadvantages (Cheung, 2002; Mahboob, 2003). Thus, having native English speaking teachers co-teach with non-native English speaking teachers can help combine their strengths and create a learning environment that can help promote learners‟ English learning. The common finding in this area of research is that different teachers will contribute differently to learners and that co-teaching seems to be beneficial to learners. However, what has not been examined is the specific contribution of the native-speaking teachers in the classroom. Thus, this study will also attempt to identify specific influences that native-speaking teachers bring to the learners in the classroom.. 9.

(22) 2.3 Factors Influencing Motivation Previous research have claimed that learners‟ attitude and motivation influence and are highly related to their second/foreign language learning, and has concluded that learning occurs more easily when the learners have a positive attitude and/or a high motivation towards the language and learning (Chamber, 1999). Thus, motivation has become a very popular area to look into when exploring learners‟ successfulness in second/foreign language learning. Recently, a number of studies have been conducted, emphasizing and reinterpreting the importance of motivation by seeing how motivation reacts with the cognitive and affective characteristics of an individual (Dörnyei, 2009; Csizér et al., 2010). Therefore, there exist factors that can possibly influence learners‟ motivation towards English learning. According to Gardner, attitude toward second/foreign language learning were also related to other factors. For example, gender differences were found to have an influence when analyzing attitudes toward language learning. Girls are said to demonstrate more positive attitudes than boys (Burstall, 1975; Gardner & Smythe, 1975). This is also the result for many research on attitude towards achievement in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In addition, attitude is also found to be influenced by learners‟ upbringings. Gagnon (1974) points out that learners‟ attitude toward learning English as a second language differ from one geographical area to another. This is possibly the case in an EFL context such as Taiwan, where there are many cram schools in the urban area compared to the rural area. Learners in the urban area are then exposed to English at a younger age and have more English classes a week compared to learners in the rural area. Thus, learners‟ motivation toward English learning will vary depending on the area from which the learners‟ live or grow up in.. 10.

(23) Past research have been done on Taiwanese learners‟ motivation towards English learning with the presence of ETAs and the factors that influence such motivation towards English learning. Huang (2011) conducted a study on elementary school learners in Taiwan and found insightful results. First, learners showed positive attitude towards English language learning with the presence of ETAs. Second, learners had a better understanding of foreign cultures after attending the ETAs‟ English classes. Third, gender was found to not have an effect on learners‟ learning attitudes. Finally, learners‟ cram school experience had an effect on their learning attitudes. Learners that have had cram school experience had a more positive attitude towards English learning with the presence of ETAs. This is possible since employing native English speaking teachers in cram schools have been very popular for the past decade; thus, learners are used to seeing and learning from native speakers of English. In addition, social and contextual factors, such as learners‟ family and friends, are found to have a great influence on motivation. Gardner (Gardner & Lambert, 1959; Gardner, 1985) emphasized the significance of parental encouragement and praise on learners‟ motivated behavior. Kormos, Kiddle & Csizér‟s (2011) study found that parental encouragement plays an important role in influencing the enjoyment and pleasure of learning a second/foreign language. Subsequent models of motivation also included the role of significant others (William & Burden, 1997) and the learners‟ family in the role of motivation (Noels, 2001). Many research have also included other constructs of parental encouragement, e.g. Gardner et al. (1999), Csizér & Dörnyei (2005), and Kormos & Csizér (2008). Thus, it is important to consider such social and contextual factors when referring to the factors that will influence learners‟ motivation towards second/foreign learning.. 11.

(24) Apart from home, learners‟ motivation is also influenced by the learners‟ learning environment, which includes the learners‟ cram school (if any) and school. The learners‟ school is said to play an important role in building learners‟ ideas, habits and attitudes (Muhammad Athar, 2011). According to Pintrich et al. (1993), motivational beliefs are argued to be affected by classroom contextual factors. In addition, changes in middle school learners‟ motivational beliefs and engagement were shown to be influenced by classroom social environment (Ryan & Patrick, 2001). Thus, the learners‟ classroom where learners do most of the learning also plays an important role in shaping their motivation. Learners‟ achievement and attitudes are said to be affected by the factors, such as teacher‟s role, within the classroom. In the case of an EFL context such as Taiwan, ETAs are commonly found to be co-teaching with LETs. There are, then, two English teachers present in the classroom which can influence the learners‟ motivation; therefore, the impact of teachers on learners is doubled. According to Zandvliet & Fraser (2005), learners‟ learning satisfaction and classroom involvement are all dependent on their teachers‟ behaviors, instructional practices, and learning setting and process. Past research have explored the role of teachers in the classroom on learners‟ motivation; however, those teachers are LETs, few have investigated the impact an ETA can have on learners‟ motivation. The increasing number of foreign teachers in Taiwan calls for the importance of exploring what these foreign teachers can bring to local Taiwanese learners and the influence they‟ll have on second/foreign language learners. In summary, language learning is affected by attitude and motivation, and there are a number of factors that have been found to affect attitude and motivation of learners. Factors that have been discussed to affect learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning are listed below:. 12.

(25) (a) Gender Differences (b) Geographical Area (c) Cram School Experience (d) Social and Contextual Factors: Role of Family (e) Environment: Cram School and School. The above mentioned factors have all shown to have an influence on learners‟ motivation towards English learning by past research. Many studies have also found results on each of the factors and how they influence learners‟ motivation. However, fewer studies have focused on these factors when an ETA is present as the main teacher of the classroom. According to Montalvo (1998), learners are likely to show more positive motivation when taught by teachers they like rather than teachers they don‟t like. Whether the learners prefer ETAs as their English teachers or not, the ETAs will either have a positive or a negative impact on the learners‟ motivation. Thus, the increase and popularity of ETAs present in Taiwanese schools and the limited number of studies examining the ETAs provide an impetus for this study to investigate the impact ETAs on learners‟ motivation.. 13.

(26) CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY In this chapter, the research design will be described in full detail. This chapter consists of five sections. The first section introduces the design of the research. The second session gives the background information of the participants. The third section describes the instruments used in this study, including the pretest and posttest of the attitude and motivation questionnaire for learners and teachers (ETAs and LETs). The fourth section outlines the procedures of this study. The final section illustrates the data analyses.. 3.1 Research Design In order to answer the research questions, this study will use both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Combining quantitative and qualitative approaches in a research can help one explore in depth and better understand the phenomena of a study rather than using a single approach (Cresswell & Plano-Clark, 2007). Such a combination allows the expansion of the research area so as to outweigh the flaws of either approach (Caracelli & Graham, 1989; Blake, 1989; Rossman & Wilson, 1994). This way, information obtained from different methods of data collection may be compared by triangulating the evaluation findings and reflecting the participants‟ points of views (Bamberger, 2012), and rich, comprehensive data may be collected which will help to provide and extend more information, broadening and deepening the understanding reached (Wisdom & Creswell, 2013). The learners‟ and teachers‟ (ETAs and LETs) attitude and motivation will be analyzed quantitatively. They will be asked to fill out an Attitude/Motivation Test Battery to get a general idea of learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning. To get a more specific idea on learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning and the impact of ETAs on learners, a more qualitative method will 14.

(27) be used by doing classroom observations and interviews on learners and teachers (LETs and ETAs). This way, classroom interactions with the teacher and peers, learners‟ motivation towards different lessons during class, experiences and information on particular topics, and more in-depth information on the participants‟ questionnaire can be observed. Finally, other documents such as field notes and annual reports will be examined to better understand the learners‟ learning situation and classroom interactions that is influenced by the ETA.. Impact of ETA on Learners‟ Attitude and Motivation towards English Learning ↓. ↓. Quantitative Approach. Qualitative Approach. ↓. ↓. Motivation Questionnaire. Classroom Observations. (AMTB) ↓. ↓. ↓. +. Learners. ETAs. LETs. Annual Reports + Interviews ↓. ↓. ↓. Administr. ETA. Teachers. -ators. Trainers. (ETAs & LETs). Figure 1. The diagram of the research design. 15. ↓ Learners.

(28) 3.2 Participants Learners There are 4056 Taiwanese learners (ranging from 10-13 years old) from six areas: Taipei, Yilan, Taitung, Kaohsiung, Taichung, and Kinmen. At the beginning and end of the school year, all of the participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire (Attitude/Motivation Test Battery) with a total of 20 items. The learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning with the presence of ETAs were examined through this questionnaire. For further understanding on the learners‟ motivation and attitude change, if any, classroom observations and interviews were done to get a better picture of what goes on in the classroom, and the learners‟ motivation and attitude during class activities. In order to explore further into the interaction between the teachers (both ETAs and LETs) and learners, classroom observations and interview were also done to learn more about the specific influence ETAs have on learner attitude and motivation. Teachers Teachers in this study include 56 ETAs and 93 LETs from the six areas: Taipei, Yilan, Taitung, Kaohsiung, Taichung, and Kinmen. All of the teachers (including both ETAs and LETs) took an Attitude/Motivation Test Battery questionnaire with a total of 14 items on their learners‟ attitude and motivation at the beginning and end of the school year. The teachers‟ perception on their learners‟ attitude and motivation toward English learning with the presence of the ETA was examined through this questionnaire to compare with the learners‟ perceptions of their own attitude and motivation. In order to explore further into the interaction between the teachers (both ETAs and LETs) and learners, classroom observations and interviews were done to learn more about their beliefs on the factors that influence their learner‟s motivation.. 16.

(29) 3.3 Data Collection Procedures This study included both quantitative and qualitative analyses. The quantitative data were mainly collected by questionnaires, while the qualitative data were collected by interviews, classroom observations, and other documents such as field notes and annual reports. Questionnaires: The Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) In order to answer the research questions and to collect data for quantitative analysis, two types of questionnaires measuring learners‟ attitude and motivation were designed: (a) A Questionnaire for Learners, and (b) A Questionnaire for Teachers (ETAs and LETs). Much past research concerned with the role of attitudinal and motivational variables on ones‟ second/foreign language learning used the Attitude and Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) (Gardner, 1985). This model has been used in past research on assessing the role of various characteristics of a learner in the learning of a second/foreign language. In Hashwani‟s (2008) study, Gardner‟s (2004) Attitude Motivation Test Battery was adapted to explore the eighth-graders‟ attitudes (English language and learning), motivations (intrinsic and extrinsic), and classroom anxiety. Sandoval-Pineda‟s (2011) study also made use of the Attitude Motivation Test Battery developed by Gardner (2004) to enhance theoretical knowledge about university learners‟ attitude and motivation towards learning English as a second language with adaptions made to fit the Mexican context. The AMTB, proposed in Gardner‟s (1985) Socio-Educational Model of Second language acquisition, was designed to measure various variables such as social milieu, individual differences, learning acquisition contexts, and language learning outcomes. In addition, the battery was thought to be a good measure of motivation in predicting the learning outcome of a learner.. 17.

(30) Adapting the AMTB The AMTB was adapted to fit the context of this study. According to Gardner (2008) and Dörnyei (2001), some adjustments to instruments to the context where it is going to be administered would be recommended. The steps followed for adapting the AMTB are as shown in Appendix A. Piloting the AMTB In order to establish the reliability and validity of the instrument, a pilot test of the AMTB was done on 66 learners (ages 10-13) who have attended an English class with the presence of an ETA. They were asked to fill out the questionnaire (see Appendix B). The reliability for every item of the questionnaire was confirmed through Conbrach‟s Alpha, and shows a Cronbach‟s Alpha value of .894, which shows a high level of internal consistency among the 20 items. Thus, the pilot test was reliable. Please see Appendix E. Questionnaire for Learners and Teachers (ETAs and LETs) The questionnaire for learners was designed to explore their attitude and motivation towards English learning with the presence of ETAs at the beginning and end of the school year. It was a four-point Likert scale consisting of 20 items about their attitude and motivation towards English learning with the presence of ETAs (see Appendix B). Their ratings in response to each item were marked on a four-point scale (4 = totally agree, 3 = agree, 2 = disagree, and 1 = totally disagree). The questionnaire for teachers (ETAs and LETs) was designed to explore their perception on their learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning with the presence of ETAs at the beginning and end of the school year. The questionnaire was basically the same as the learners‟; however, items were changed so that teachers would be rating each item on their learners. It was a four-point Likert scale consisting. 18.

(31) of 14 items (see Appendix C for ETAs‟ questionnaire & D for LETs‟ questionnaire). Their ratings in response to each item were marked on a four-point scale (4 = totally agree, 3 = agree, 2 = disagree, and 1 = totally disagree). According to Krosnick et al. (2005), since attitudes are memory-based and sometimes temporary and that “there is no reason to believe that a single person will always report the same attitude toward an object when asked it on multiple occasions in different contexts”. For this reason, learners‟ attitude and motivation will be measured twice in this study, at the beginning when little knowledge is stored and at the end of the school year where there is more knowledge and memories. Interviews Interviews can not only help the researcher learn more about the participants experiences and information on a particular topic, but also be used to pursue more on certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g. to get a more in-depth information on their responses to questionnaires (McNamara, 1999; Patton, 1990). The interviews conducted in this study were in a semi-structured interview format in which the interviewer prepared a list of questions to ask, but may alternate, depending on the responses (Weiss, 1995). This type of interview was recommended by Hitchcock and Hughes (1989) since the interviewer could further investigate and expand on particularly interesting responses, and may even develop a kind of relationship with the participant where negotiations, discussions, and expansions of particular responses could occur. Classroom Observations Classroom observations were done in order to see how the classes were conducted. Learners‟ attitude and motivation, learners‟ behavior and reactions towards topic lessons, and learners‟ discussion on particular topics were all observed. The goal. 19.

(32) of these classroom observations was to find patterns in teacher-learners interactions, learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning and topic lessons, teachers‟ role in the classroom, and any facilities or teaching strategies that may be related to the learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning. Field notes and photos were taken with participants‟ permission. Field Notes Field notes was taken in order to have a more detailed and rich description of the participants‟ learning situation and environment, and activities that happened during class. These field notes would not only provide extra information on the learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning, but also give insight on the learner‟s learning environment, teachers‟ role, certain cultural topics, and teaching strategies that might have had an impact on learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning.. 3.4 Procedures of the Study In the beginning of the school year (September-October), learners and teachers (ETAs and LETs) completed the attitude and motivation questionnaire (pretest). During the school year, periodic class observations and interviews across different regions were conducted until the posttest was taken. At the end of the school year (May-June), learners and teachers (ETAs and LETs) completed the attitude and motivation questionnaire (posttest).. 20.

(33) Table 2 The Procedures of the Study September-. Attitude and Motivation Questionnaire (Pretest):. October. Learners & Teachers (LETs & ETAs) ↓. October-June. Classroom Observation:. Interviews:. Learners. Learners, Teachers (LETs & ETAs). ↓ May-June. Attitude and Motivation Questionnaire (Posttest): Learners & Teachers (LETs & ETAs). 3.5 Data Analysis Quantitative Analysis Invalid questionnaires (i.e. the incomplete ones) were removed and the valid ones were keyed in by the computer. A quantitative analysis will be carried out, using SPSS Statistics 20 for Windows. The processes are described below. Analysis of questionnaire for learners Learners‟ responses to the 20 items of the questionnaire were transferred to scores (4 = totally agree, 3 = agree, 2 = disagree, and 1 = totally disagree). If the mean is 3.0 and above, it suggests that the respondents agree with the statement and is on the positive position; if the mean is below 3.0, it suggests that the respondents disagree with the statement and is on the negative position. Cross Tabulation was used to analyze and compare the large set of data and to record the number (frequency) of participants that had particular characteristics as described in the table. Through Cross Tabulation, the number (frequency) of responses for the respondents from different areas can be seen and easily compared.. 21.

(34) To test whether there was a significant difference in the pretest and posttest, the data was further analyzed by a T-Test.. Analysis of questionnaire for teachers (LETs and ETAs) Teachers‟ responses to the 14 items of the questionnaire was transferred to scores (4 = totally agree, 3 = agree, 2 = disagree, and 1 = totally disagree). If the mean is 3.0 and above, it suggests that the respondents agree with the statement and is on the positive position. If the mean is below 3.0, it suggests that the respondents disagree with the statement and is on the negative position. The teachers‟ perception would be used to compare with learners‟ own perception of their attitude and motivation towards English learning. The goal of the comparison between the teachers‟ and the learners‟ perception was to identify issues for further exploration through interviews and classroom observations. Qualitative Analysis The qualitative analysis in this study included interviews and classroom observations, which would help to provide a more in-depth understanding of learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning. Data were read and re-read so as to get a better understanding of the content, to discover or label variables and to find the relationship among variables (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Interviews were transcribed and analyzed to find core themes which may have recurred frequently and linked various data together. Classroom observations and field notes were carefully recorded and transcribed to find patterns.. 22.

(35) CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The aim of this study is to explore the impact of English teaching assistants (ETAs) on learners‟ (ages 10-13) motivation towards English language learning from the perspectives of the learners‟ own perception, English teaching assistants‟ perception and the local English teachers‟ (LETs‟) perception. A questionnaire was issued to learners from ages 10-13, and another was sent to the learners‟ teachers (both ETAs and LETs) to measure the general idea of these learners‟ attitude and motivation towards English learning with the presence of ETAs. All the questionnaire scores were analyzed quantitatively through SPSS Statistics 20 to answer research question one of this study. Interviews and classroom observations were analyzed qualitatively to answer research question two.. 4.1 Quantitative Results This is a study with a large set of data. There were 20 statements in total for the learners‟ questionnaire, and 14 statements in total for the teachers‟ questionnaire (both ETAs and LETs). Each statement on the questionnaire was tabulated (pretest and posttest). For the purpose of this study, Cross Tabulation was used to analyze the large set of data and to record the number (frequency) of participants that had particular characteristics as described in the table. Some individual items with particular high scores or great improvement in scores between the pretest and posttest were studied; others that have not been mentioned are included in Appendix F (learners‟ results) and Appendix G (ETAs‟ and LETs‟ results). In addition, a T-Test was used to test whether there were significant differences between the pretest and posttest for each statement (please see Appendix H for learners & I for teachers).. 23.

(36) Research Question 1a: Regarding learners’ motivation towards English learning, what is the learners’ perception of their motivation? The learners‟ questionnaire in the pretest and posttest showed that the learners gave high scores (3 or 4) to the majority of the items measuring their attitude and motivation, and very few low scores of 2, and no low score of 1. Thus, the learners seemed to have a positive attitude and relatively high motivation towards English language learning with the presence of ETA (see Appendix F). A further analysis will follow by examining the scores of some particular statements from the broad measures of the AMTB: integrativeness, attitudes toward the learning situation, language anxiety and parental encouragement. The selection of these particular statements was based on the large percentage of learners giving such a high/low score for these statements. (1) Integrativeness: Item 14: 我想要認識很多外國人。 Item 14: I want to know many foreigners. An average high score of 4 was given for this item in the pretest and posttest. The pretest showed that 37.8% of the learners have given this item a high score of 4; in the posttest, 40.1% of the learners gave a high score of 4. In addition, the results showed that there was a significant difference between the pretest and the posttest (t = -2.800, p < 0.05). This showed that, towards the end of the year, more and more learners would like to get to know and more foreigners. Learners are not as shy when they see other ETAs that they do not know. They will greet and smile, and also show curiosity when they see other foreigners by asking their ETAs questions. When ETAs show learners photos of their family and friends celebrating (for example, 24.

(37) Thanksgiving), learners see many different kinds of foreigners and ask many questions about them. Item 15: 我覺得自己了解美國文化了。 Item 15: I feel I understand American culture. In the pretest, an average low score of 2 was seen on this statement. 31.7% of the learners gave this low score. However, in the posttest, an average higher score of 3 was reported by 32.4% of the learners. In addition, the results showed that there was a significant difference between the pretest and the posttest (t = -5.117, p < 0.05). Learners, especially, enjoy class with cultural activities such as decorating Easter eggs. A few learners that love Halloween have chosen to decorate their Easter eggs to look like the pumpkins they drew for their Halloween class activity. This showed that learners believed they had a better understanding of American culture after a school year. (2) Attitudes toward the learning situation: Item 9: 我可以聽得懂外國老師說的話。 Item 9: I can understand the foreign teacher‟s words. For the pretest and posttest, an average high score of 3 was given by 32.9% of the learners and 39.5% of the learners respectively. Even though the score remained to be 3 in the posttest, more learners gave a high score of 3 for this item (an increase of 6.6% from the pretest to the posttest). In addition, the results showed that there was a significant difference between the pretest and the posttest (t = -7.469, p < 0.05). Towards the end of the year, learners have become more interactive and participatory in class. Learners ask more questions and respond to the ETAs‟ comments, saying „yay‟ and „boo‟ to show the ETA how they feel about 25.

(38) particular things. After class, learners will also make use of the free time to have a quick chat with the ETAs. This showed an improvement and that the learners understood more of what the ETAs said in English. Item 12: 我覺得有外國老師的英文課比較好玩也比較有趣。 Item 12: I feel that classes with foreign teachers are more interesting and fun. Both the pretest and posttest showed a high score of 4, given by 53.9% of the learners and 56.4% of the learners respectively. An increase in the percentage of the learners was seen in the posttest, showing that more learners had given a high score of 4. The results further showed that there was a significant difference between the pretest and the posttest (t = -2.710, p < 0.05). Although the increase in percentage for this statement was small, what was important to observe was that learners maintained a high level of interest in being in the ETAs‟ class after the whole year. The classroom atmosphere has changed from quiet, traditional teacher-fronted to lively and cheerful. Learners were not shy to talk to and respond to ETAs during class, and have also made even more comments on characters in the videos they watch towards the end of the year. When ETAs sing during class, learners will try sing with the ETA if they know the song. This showed that learners had fun and enjoyed the English class more with the presence of an ETA. (3) Language Anxiety: Item 1: 我可以輕鬆的與老師用英語交談。 Item 1: I can talk to my teacher in English easily. For the pretest and posttest, an average high score of 3 was given by 36.4% of the learners and 40.7% of the learners respectively. Even though the score 26.

(39) remained to be 3 in the posttest, more learners gave a high score of 3 for this item (an increase of 3.3% from the pretest to the posttest). In addition, more learners also gave a high score of 4 for this item (17.1% and 18.1% of the learners for the pretest and posttest respectively), and fewer learners gave a low score of 1 for this item (14% and 11.8% of the learners for the pretest and posttest respectively) by the end of the year. The results further showed that there was a significant difference between the pretest and the posttest (t = -4.113, p < 0.05). Although the increases in the percentages seemed small, when examining all the increase in percentages together from the various scores, there seemed to be the tendency that the learners had gotten more used to speaking English and felt even more comfortable speaking English to their teachers by the end of the year. Towards the end of the year, it can be seen that more and more learners find time to have quick chats with ETAs after class. By looking at the smiles on their faces and noisy laughs, it is clear that learners do not only enjoy talking to the ETA, but can also communicate and have a conversation with the ETA easily. Item 13: 我可以輕鬆的與外國人用英語交談。 Item 13: I can talk to foreigners in English easily. An average low score of 2 was given for the pretest and posttest. This showed that learners might still feel afraid and uncomfortable speaking to foreigners in English. However, 11.5% and 14.5% of the learners had given a high score of 4 for this item in the pretest and posttest respectively, showing that more learners felt comfortable speaking English to foreigners by the end of the year; and fewer learners felt less comfortable speaking English to foreigners. 27.

(40) by the end of the year (23.1% and 19.1% of the learners for the pretest and posttest respectively). The results further showed that there was a significant difference between the pretest and the posttest (t = -6.305, p < 0.05). Again, the data here showed that although learners still felt uneasy when talking to foreigners in English, the fact that more learners reported at the end of the year that they felt at ease, and that fewer learners reported the uneasiness suggested that the anxiety of speaking English to foreigners seemed to have reduced a little. This is evident as learners try to interact and get to know other ETAs that do not teach them by greeting the unfamiliar ETAs. However, further studies would still be needed to examine the actual decrease of learners‟ language anxiety. (4) Other measure: Parental Encouragement: Item 20: 我的爸媽鼓勵我多學習英文。 Item 20: My parents encourage me to learn more English. A high score of 4 was given for this item in the pretest and posttest. The pretest and the posttest showed that 62% and 64% of the learners had given this item a high score of 4 respectively. In addition, the results showed that there was a significant difference between the pretest and the posttest (t = -2.851, p < 0.05). This showed that, towards the end of the year, more and more learners felt that their parents believed English to be important and encouraged them to learn English. Previous research have explored and found the importance of parental encouragement on learners‟ success in second/foreign language learning (Gardner & Lambert, 1959; Gardner, 1985). Parents‟ beliefs on the importance of English learning and their encouragement help to increase. 28.

(41) learners‟ motivation towards English learning. Thus, learners will have a more positive attitude when learning English. Summary of Learners’ Findings By examining learners‟ attitude toward the foreign language and culture, and their belief of their anxiety in using the foreign language at two different time periods, it could be seen that learners, in general, had a positive and high motivation towards English learning with the presence of ETAs (see Table 3). Table 3 Summary Table of Average High Scores for the Pretest and Posttest (Learners) 1. I can talk to my teacher in English easily. Pretest. 1. (14%). 3 (36.4%). 4 (17.1%). Posttest. 1 (11.8%). 3 (40.7%). 4 (18.1%). 9. I can understand the foreign teacher‟s words. Pretest. 3 (32.9%). 4 (16.8%). Posttest. 3 (39.5%). 4 (19.9%). 15. I feel I understand American culture. Pretest. 2 (31.7%). Posttest. 3 (32.4%) 20. My parents encourage me to learn more English.. Pretest. 4 (62%). Posttest. 4 (64%). After a year of attending an English class with the ETA, learners believed that they had a better understanding of foreign culture and understood more of the English said in class. From the questionnaires, it could be seen that many learners enjoyed 29.

(42) attending the ETAs‟ English class and felt that they could speak more comfortably with the ETA in English towards the end of the year. According to Dörnyei (2001), motivation is responsible for why people decided to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the activity, and how hard they are going to pursue it. In the case of these young Taiwanese learners, they seemed to have benefitted from the ETAs and had a higher motivation to learn English. This is very important as motivated learners are more willing to learn English, and to also continue learning it even for only a few hours a week during the year. Maintaining high levels of attitude and motivation has allowed them to enjoy learning English from their foreign teacher and to not be afraid to speak out in English to their teachers. Learners with a higher motivation towards English language learning tend to also have better academic achievement. Past research have emphasized the importance of motivation based on Dörnyei‟s (2005) theory of motivational selfsystem. According to Jakobovits‟ (1970) study, the following factors influencing learners‟ academic achievement participate in the following proportions: aptitude 33%, intelligence 20%, motivation 33%, and other factors 14%. In addition, Masgoret & Gardner‟s (2003) study confirms that motivation is more highly related to second language achievement compared to the other four variables in Gardner‟s Socioeducational model (integrativeness, attitude towards the learning situation, integrative orientation, and instrumental orientation). Thus, motivation stands a large proportion in influencing learners‟ successful second/foreign language learning. Employing ETAs has helped increase learners‟ attitude and motivation, which in turn leads to better academic achievement. Furthermore, an individual‟s attitude has been defined by Gardner (1985) as “an evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object [attitude toward something, 30.

(43) e.g. „attitudes towards French-speaking people‟], inferred on the basis of the individual‟s beliefs or opinions about the referent.” In the specific case of these young EFL learners in Taiwan, their attitudes and motivation was measured through an adapted version of the AMTB, which resulted in majority of the learners showing high levels of attitude and motivation throughout the school year. Specifically, there was an increase in the number of learners, from the pretest to the posttest, who showed a better understanding in the English spoken in class, are more motivated to speak English to their foreign teacher, and have a higher interest in learning the foreign language and culture. With such a positive attitude and increased motivation in English learning, learning English as a second/foreign language will occur more easily for EFL learners (Chamber, 1999) and their international perspectives on foreign culture is expanded. Learners are also less afraid to approach ETAs and have built a strong, trustworthy relationship with the ETAs. With learners‟ anxiety level lowered, their motivation and self-esteem is boosted as learners characterize good teachers as warm, respectful and empathetic teachers (Abu-Rabia, 2004; Schmuck and Schmuck, 1988). Thus, the ETAs have had quite an impact of learners‟ English learning. By building an honest relationship with the learners, the learners‟ anxiety levels are lowered, and their attitude and motivation have increased, which will all result in better academic achievement. The knowledge ETAs provide to learners may have been beneficial; however, little did we know the learners‟ emotional aspects and motivation may be influenced by the ETAs in such a good way. It is a plus to see how much learners have improved in their motivation and cultural knowledge, but it is even better to see how the learners‟ lowered anxiety levels, and increased attitude and motivation will eventually result in better academic achievement. 31.

(44) In addition, the positive gain in motivation is very likely to lead to success in English learning in the present and the future. According to Vansteenkiste et al. (2005), the positive influence of motivation on study strategy, academic performance, adjustment, and well-being in students has been shown in educational domains. Gardner‟s (1959) socio-educational model of second language acquisition pinpoints that motivation is the most important variable that is claimed to be the cause of successful or failure in second language acquisition. In this specific study, it can be seen that learners with increased motivation towards the end of the year are more willing to interact and speak out in English during class. They pay more attention during class, are more willing to learn from the ETA, and also show concentration and improvement during small quizzes and tests. This shows that the learners are showing signs of successful English learning when their attitudinal and motivational levels are increased. This finding agrees with Singh et al.‟s (2002) study that attitude and motivation affects achievement; thus, the higher the attitude and motivation, the better the learners‟ academic achievement. Given this understanding, it can be confirmed that positive attitude and high motivation will lead to successful language learning. Lastly, parental encouragement on English learning seemed to have strengthened learners‟ motivation to learn English. These results confirm the early work of Gardner (Gardner & Lambert, 1959; Gardner 1985), who pointed out the significant effect parental encouragement and praise has on the learners‟ motivation, and also later models of motivation have also included the role of significant others (Williams & Burden, 1997), and the learners‟ family in their study of motivation (Noels, 2001). Since motivation is also influenced by social and contextual factors, learners‟ immediate environment such as their family plays an important role in goal setting, attitude formation, and influencing their self-efficacy beliefs and the effort 32.

(45) and persistence with which they carry out a learning activity (Kormos et al., 2011), parental encouragement seems to play an important role in influencing the learners‟ enjoyment and pleasure derived from English language learning attitudes. In the case of these EFL learners learning English with the presence of ETAs, it can be seen that other than encouragement from teachers at school, learners also receive encouragement at home. Strong parental encouragement also contributed to learners‟ positive attitude and increased motivation. Parents‟ encouraging words and supportive actions show learners how to make improvements, broaden their experiences and to also take up challenges without fear. With a strong learner motivation on learning English, the success of their learning could be predicted. As Gardner (1985) argued, higher motivation would lead to a greater success in language learning. Research Question 1b and 1c: Regarding learners’ motivation towards English learning, (b) what are the English Teaching Assistants’ (ETAs’) perception of their learners’ motivation? (c) what are the Local English Teachers’ (LETs’) perception of their learners’ motivation? Research question 1a focused on learners‟ perception of their own motivation in learning a language, but research questions 1b and 1c focused on teachers‟ perception of their learners. The inclusion of the teachers‟ perception was to examine how teachers, who were an essential part of the classroom, viewed their learners‟ motivation. The teachers‟ view on their learners‟ motivation to learn English could help this study understand learners‟ language learning motivation more 33.

(46) comprehensively. Research questions 1b and 1c would be answered together since both questions dealt with teachers‟ perception of their learners‟ motivation. In general, the ETAs‟ questionnaire in the pretest and posttest showed high scores of 3 for most of the items measuring their attitude and motivation. More specifically, in the pretest, only half of the 14 items had a high score of 3, while the other half had a lower score of 2, and very few high scores of 4. However, in the posttest, there were more than half of the 14 items with a high score of 3 and very few had a lower score of 2 (see Figure 2). The teachers‟ higher rating of their learners‟ motivation suggested that the ETAs believed that their learners‟ attitude and motivation had improved after a year by looking at their class behavior.. ETA 500. 442. 400 275. 300. 259. 243. 200 100. 59. 72. 37. 28. 0 1. 2 Pretest. 3. 4. Posttest. Figure 2. The total number of times given by ETAs for each score (Pretest & Posttest) On the other hand, the LETs‟ questionnaire showed high scores of 3 for most of the items measuring their attitude and motivation. Specifically, in the pretest, it could be seen that the LETs perceived their learners to have a relatively high attitude and motivation for English learning with only few low scores of 2, but no high scores of 4. For the posttest, LETs also saw some improvements in their learners‟ attitude and. 34.

(47) motivation as they had given even more high scores of 3 with even fewer low scores of 2 compared to the pretest (see Figure 3).. LET 666. 656. 700 600 455. 500 400. 335. 300 200 100. 138. 126 65. 23. 0 1. 2 Pretest. 3. 4. Posttest. Figure 3. The total number of times given by LETs for each score (Pretest & Posttest) Thus, both teachers (ETAs and LETs) believed that their learners‟ attitude and motivation had improved after a year, with the ETAs believing that they saw more of an improvement compared to the LETs. At the beginning of the school year, the ETAs gave much more lower scores of 2 compared to the LETs; while at the end of the year, the ETAs gave a higher score of 3 for almost all of the items, like the LETs. A further analysis will follow in the following section by looking at the scores of some particular items from the measures of the AMTB (the ETAs‟ results will be discussed first, then the LETs‟):. 35.