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Duc et al., 1993; Doong et al., 2002). Since the 1970s, organochlorine pesticides are banned or restricted and the level of contamination in the environment is being monitored every 10 years since 1980s by the Council of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Administration. Last soil monitoring was conducted between 2004 and 2006. Currently, manufacture, sell, import and use of persistent organic pollutants are officially prohibited in Taiwan (Tsai, 2010).
The third study conducted by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry published a study that found that children who live in homes where their parents use pesticides are twice likely to develop brain cancer compare to those who live in place where no pesticides are used (S.T.A.T.E., 1995).
The fourth study, the National Cancer Institute in 1989 reported children develop leukemia six times more often when pesticides are used around their home.
“Pesticides with high acute toxicity can affect people who are preparing, mixing or using pesticides, but also by-standers, people entering treated fields, consumers eating treated produce too soon after application, etc. Other handling during
which such pesticides can pose risk include storage, cleaning and storage of
application equipment, disposal of empty containers and contaminated materials such as gloves (FAO, 2016, p. 10).”
In addition, according to the EPA, 95% of the pesticides used on residential lawns are possible or probable carcinogens. Finally, congress found that 90% of the pesticides on the market lack even minimal required safety screening (American Defender Network, 1989; Shultz, 1989). In other words, there are no doubts about the health
Picture 5.: Working with pesticides.
Source: www.google.com.
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risks posed by pesticides during all stages of usage, mainly its application, remains in food, and contaminating environment, as water and soil.
“Besides acute risk of occupational poisoning, several countries documented abroad problem of use of acutely toxic pesticides for self-harm purposes. In several countries, it has been demonstrated that prohibiting or restricting access to such products significantly reduces fatalities due to suicide…Hazards to the environment include contamination of water resources and soils, and acute or chronic toxicity to non-target organisms that may lead to disruption of ecosystem functions, such as pollination or natural pest suppression (FAO, 2016, p. 10).”
According to the Toxic Active Center, “even if we know that a pesticide causes severe health and environmental impacts, including cancer and genetic damage, it may still be allowed for use. The EPA may determine that a cancer-causing chemical may be used despite its public health hazard if its ‘economic, social or environmental’
benefits are deemed greater than its risk. According to the US EPA, more than 70 active ingredients known to cause cancer in animal tests are allowed for use.
Although industry tests for a wide range of environmental and health impacts, the vast majority of pesticides currently on the market have not been fully tested. Pesticides often contain inert ingredients in addition to the active ingredients that are designed to kill the target pest. Unfortunately, the public is not provided information about what inert ingredients are included in pesticides in most cases (Toxics Action Center, 2015).” In other words, human life has been accounted for its value (for example by insurance companies) and if the increased yield of production using pesticides exceed the “cost” of its use, pesticides can be used even with health risk they cause.
However, it is also clear that the majority of pesticides were not tested for their
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negative effect and public is kept in the dark about this whole issue.
One research even found that over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields (Miller, 2004). In other words, the impact of pesticides consists of the effects of pesticides on non-target species. Pesticides are chemical preparations used to kill fungal or animal pests; however, also can influence environment and human health, especially children.
It is quite stunning that the FAO document (FAO, 2016, p. 11) says that health problems are caused by inaccurate using of pesticides, low illiteracy level, limited education, labels in languages different from the mother language of farmers,
insufficient protection equipment, higher price of safe pesticides etc.; however, there is not even one word about problematic of pesticides itself or producing and
distributing these pesticides. The document mentions countries in Sub-Sahara Africa where 60% of population works in agriculture and overall country has problem with poverty. How could these countries produce such high toxic pesticides? Do they invent technology needed or can they afford to buy know-how from developed countries? If factories are located in poor countries who built or finance them? It is obvious that those farmers are only users and victims of the pesticides. Nevertheless, the document is not questioning if there is an elemental need for them or where the high toxic chemicals are produced. Probably, they are produced in or by high income countries since only usage is limited by recommendation of organizations and
agreements caring after human health. Not to mention, chemical concerns producing pesticides can be effectively lobbying for their interest during WHO or any nation’s research process became regular procedure with many records from U.S. Therefore,
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even the international limits set by WHO and other organization are possibly influenced by chemical concerns.
In Taiwan, the use of pesticides increased rapidly from 2 million NTD in 1952, 662 million NTD in 1979 (Li, G.C., 1979), 4.78 billion NTD in 2002, and, finally, to 7.69 billion NTD in 2015. Below are pictures for comparison of proper protection
equipment, Picture 6A and Picture 6B (below) with pictures taken in Taiwan, Picture 7A and Picture 7B (below). To conclude, not all farmers in Taiwan use the proper protection equipment and pose themselves to health risk.
According to Taiwan Agriculture Chemicals and Toxic Substances Research
Picture 6A. Proper protection
Picture 6B. Proper protection equipment.
Picture 7A. Applying pesticide with a dust mask in Taiwan.
Picture 7B. Applying pesticide without any protection in Taiwan.
Pictures 6A – 7B. Source: www.google.com
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Institute, Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan, nearly every two years are exposed some pesticides which could be directly connected to cause cancer, toxicity or other serious illnesses (TACTRI). Thus, in Taiwan, chemicals are being used without clear and researched side effects and impact on human health. This institute has many publications but the majority is not provided to the public. Those available shows that heavy metals are increasing in plants, rice and shellfish in Taiwan. Still below the international limit in 2004, but already getting closer to the limit (Lin, Haw-Tarn, 2004; Li, G.C., et al., 1994). While in 1979 many heavy metals, such as mercury, were below the detectable limit of research devices (Li, G.C., 1979). Unfortunately, there are no publications concerning this issue since 2004, even when it can pose serious health risk to human health of Taiwanese nation.
In 2010, a research investigating persistent organic pollutants in Taiwan concludes that there has been significant progress about declining residual levels of persistent organic pollutants. The persistent organic pollutants are aldrin, chlordane,
chlordecone, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene,
α/β-hexachlorocyclohexanes, lindane, mirex, pentachloro-benzene, and toxaphene. These pollutants are very stable and resist photolytic, biological and chemical degradation.
They also tend to accumulate in food chains and human bodies. There is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals proving that chlordecine, DDT, hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorocyclohexane, lindane, mirex, and toxaphene are reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen. The most important milestone was the Stockholm Convention signed in 2004 which contributed to reduction of exposure of humans and the ecosystem to organochloride pesticides. Taiwan is not a member of the Stockholm Convention, but implemented the content into domestic work on 2008.
The Stockholm Convention formerly includes aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin,
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endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, and toxaphene. Later in 2010, new persistent organic pollutants were added, namely hexachlorocyclohexane,
chlordecone, lindane, and pentachlorobenzene (Tsai, 2010).
The data concerning pesticides production, consumption, export and import between 2006 and 2015 are summarized in Figure 10, “Pesticides by quantity in Taiwan 2015”
(above). Clearly, production, import, and export, all are increasing overall. The most significant increase is in export which more than doubled over time. In observed period of time, the mean of pesticides consumption is 8,932 m.t. with lowest level of 7,851 m.t. in 2010 and highest levels in 2007 and 2013 with 9,792 m.t. and 9,636 m.t.
respectively. There is no significant increase in pesticides consumption, but compare to fertilizers, there is also not decrease at all.
Pesticides manufacturing involves the extensive use of energy during production, because many pesticides are derived from petroleum chemicals, mainly ethylene, propylene, and methane. Electricity, natural gas, steam, and other petroleum sources are also used in manufacturing for such process as heating, distillation, stirring, and
8,506 8,900 8,838 8,140 7,881 7,702 8,715 8,764 9,597 10,560
9,114 9,792 8,782 8,589 7,851 8,254 9,396 9,632 8,619 9,295
2,305 2,815 2,592 2,522 2,280 2,200 3,164 3,081 3,043 3,013
1,944 2,224 2,648 2,074 2,310 1,648 2,483 2,213 4,021 4,278
2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5
FIGURE 10: PESTICIDES BY QUANTITY IN TAIWAN 2015 (UNIT: METRIC TON)
Production Consumption Import Export
Data source: ASY, 2015.
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drying. Other inputs of energy also occur in the construction and maintenance of the manufacturing plant and equipment, import of raw materials, export of waste, and the many energies involved in human operations.
For the computation of the produced and consumed pesticides in Taiwan for year 2015, ratios provided by the Council of Agriculture in the Agriculture Yearbook 2015 (ASY, 2015) were used. This data were presented in Table 4 “Pesticides’ Total
Production and Consumption in Taiwan 2015” (below). In 2015, total produced pesticides accounted 10,560 m.t. and the total consumed amount was 9,295 m.t.
Data source: ASY, 2015.
Table 5: World average of energy requirements for produce, package, transport, and apply pesticides (UNIT: kJ/kg)
Produce 243,355
Package 9,100
Transport 15,750
Apply 5,600
Total 273,805
Data source: Ferraro, 2007.
Produced and consumed pesticides in metric tons are converted into energy with Table 5 “World average of energy requirement for produce, package, transport, and
Table 4: Pesticides’ total production and consumption in Taiwan 2015 (UNIT: m.t.)
Pesticides
Produced 10,560
Consumed 9,295
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apply pesticides” (above) computed by Ferraro (2007). Production and packaging parts are calculated with produced pesticides and transportation with application are calculated with consumed amount of pesticides. In the case of import and export, due to lack of information pesticides are also omitted from calculation as it was made in the case of fertilizers and this makes the result of energy as the minimal energy consumption by pesticides’ life cycle. The result is displayed in Table 6, “Total energy requirement for produce, package, transport, and apply pesticides in Taiwan”
(below). The total energy consumed during whole life cycle of pesticides’ production, packaging, transportation, and application accounted 2,864,373.05 GJ, equivalent to 2.864 PJ or to 795.7228 GWh, in Taiwan 2015.
Table 6: Total energy requirements for produce, package, transport, and apply pesticides in Taiwan (UNIT: GJ/kg)
Produce 2,569,828.8
Package (produced) 96,096
Transport (consumed) 146,396.25
Apply (consumed) 52,052
Total 2,864,373.05
Total in PJ 2.864
Source: own calculation based on Ferraro’s (2007) world average data;
ASY, 2015.
There are no available data for the whole process of pesticides production which starts from raw materials produced in Taiwan or if it is used already as half processed input.
Thus, the total consumed energy required to produce pesticides is not necessary all consumed in Taiwan and can exceed the real energy consumption in Taiwan;
however, it is important to calculate the whole process and consumption of energy regardless of country’s origin to obtain the real environmental price.
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Figure 11, “Average price of pesticides in Taiwan between 1994 and 2015” (below) shows changes in the average price of pesticides over the last two decades from 1994 to 2015. In this period of time, there are two very significant increases in price in 2003 and 2008, from 133 NTD/kg to 149 NTD/kg in 2003 and from 128 NTD/kg to 152 NTD/kg in 2008. The price development is quite unstable and each rapid decrease in price results in following rapid increase until 2010 when price rise in more stable manner. In the last part of observed period of time, the average price (139 NTD/kg) is close to the average price in 1994 (140 NTD/kg).
5. Organic agriculture
5.1 Definition and Introduction
Conventional agriculture uses chemical inputs as artificial fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides, while organic farming mainly relies on crop rotation and residues, the use of organic fertilizers and biological pest control. Organic food is recognized by the
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FIGURE 11: AVERAGE PRICE OF PESTICIDES IN TAIWAN BETWEEN 1994 AND 2015 (UNIT: NTD PER KG)
Price NTD/kg Data source: ASY, 2015, 2005, and 2003.
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Taiwanese government as beneficial to both food safety and national health. While producing safe and fine products, pollution impact on environment is also reduced.
Taiwanese officials acknowledged that organic agriculture is “effectively contributing to the biodiversity and the sustainable development of agriculture (COA b, 2014).”
The origin of organic agriculture has roots in 1924 in Europe when Rudolf Steiner in his eight lectures introduced biodynamic agriculture as the first modern system of organic agriculture (Paull a, 2011). These lectures were held because of requests by farmers noticing degradation of soil and deterioration in health and quality of corps resulting from the use of chemical fertilizers from middle of 19th century (Horne, 2008, Paull b, 2011). Presented concept during lectures later became known as organic agriculture. Since then, various organizations continue to develop this kind of farming. Expansion of organic agriculture was enhanced by increasing usage of artificial fertilizers in 20th century (Stinner, 2007) as reaction to negative impact of artificial chemical treatment (Lotter, 2003). As a result, over the recent decade, organic farming has increased sharply in many parts of the world (European Commission, 2013; European Commission b, 2014).
5.2 Efficiency and Sustainability
Organic agriculture has lower yield than conventional agriculture but do not cause long-term degradation of soil. Therefore, comparing organic farming with
conventional agriculture should be done not only in terms of yield as it often did, but also with right share of natural fallow. Many scholars claim that organic farming is more sustainable and less harmful to the environment than conventional farming (European Commission, 2013; European Commission b, 2014; Chatzisymeion, 2016).
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The most important advantage of organic agriculture is minimal negative impact to human health and its safety. As it is important to note that food produced in organic way do not contain any remains of pesticides, artificial fertilizers or other chemicals.
Consequently, it contributes to good human health condition and protecting natural environment. Thus, it is also contributing to sustainable agriculture. For instance, LCA study in 2016 comparing conventional and organic pepper cultivation in Greece focusing on sustainability revealed that organic cultivation has a significantly lower effect on the freshwater eutrophication impact category since phosphate emissions arising from application of chemical fertilizers are absent (Chatzisymeon et al., 2016).
In Taiwan, the first government organic standard was published in 1999 and revised in 2000. In 2003, it was revised again and promulgated as the Organic Standard Law.
The number of certificated organic farms land until June 2003 reached 1,092,4 ha, these organic farms produce organic rice, vegetables, fruits, tea, etc. (Hsieh, 2005).
The Council of Agriculture officially accredited three nongovernment organizations as Organic Food Certification Organizations. In recent years, Taiwanese import of
organic food increased with two main exporting countries, Japan and U.S. There are four ways to purchase organic food: supermarkets, organic health food stores, agribusiness scale chain, and e-commerce. In 2005, there was no penalty regulation for violators of the law on organic labeling.Since 2007, misuse of certification is penalized according to the Agricultural Production and Certification Act. (COA c, 2014).
According to IFOAM, in 2003, the percentage of organic area of the total agricultural area in Taiwan was 0.03 percent (1,092 ha) as relatively very small compare to Japan 0.1 percent (5,083 ha), China 0.79 percent (301,295 ha), Papua New Guinea, 0.49
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percent, New Zealand 1.93 percent, or Australia with 2.08 percent (Hsieh, 2005). Year 2005 was designed as the Year of Safe Agriculture with promotion of organic
agriculture, Certified Agricultural Standards, and tracking system for agricultural products. (FFTA, 2006) The government management of organic agricultural products began in 2007 when Agricultural Production and Certification Act was introduced aiming to protect consumers’ health and interest by increasing quality and safety of agricultural products and processed goods (COA b, 2014). In 2010, a total cultivated area without applying chemical fertilizers or pesticides was 166,278 ha, from which 6,490 ha is certified as organic, as is presented in Figures 12, 13, and 14 (below).
With comparison to the total area with 579,617 ha, we can conclude that 28.67% of land was
0% pesticides but other than organic Organic
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cultivated without chemicals and 1.11% was under organic management in 2010 (National Statistics, 2010).
6. Energy
6.1 Energy consumption analysis
In Taiwan, total supply of primary energy in 2015 accounted 523 PJ, as Figure 15,
“Energy Supply in Taiwan 2015” (right) shows, there was 2.16% energy (124.831 PJ) produced in Taiwan and 97.84% energy (5,347.704 PJ) was imported. The total domestic final consumption of energy accounted 4,429.709 PJ, when classified by a sector as can be seen in Figure 16 “Energy Consumption in Taiwan 2015,
Energy use by sector” (right). The agriculture, forestry, and fishery sectors used 0.91%, energy sector consumed 6.59%, industrial sector 37.08%, transportation sector 11.9%, services sector 11.03%, residential sector 10.69%, and non-energy uses 21.99%. The energy consumed by agriculture sector compared to previous year
98%
Source: Energy Statistics Handbook, 2015.
26.
2015, Energy use by sector
(UNIT: %)
Source: Energy Statistics Handbook, 2015.
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The Figure 17, “Energy consumption in agriculture in 2015” (above) shows more detailed data about energy consumption in Taiwanese agriculture sectors where 49%
of energy is consumed by agriculture, animal husbandry, and hunting sector, 33% of energy is used by fishery sector, less than 1% of energy is consumed by forestry and logging, and 18% of energy is used by non-specified other activities.
Energy consumption in agriculture by subsector is displayed in Figure 18,
“Energy consumption in agriculture by subsector in 2015” (right). The share of energy 33% was
consumed by aquaculture subsector, 19% of energy was used by animal
49%
0%
33%
18%
Figure 17: Energy consumption in agriculture in 2015 (UNIT: %)
Agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting (農、牧、狩獵合計)
Figure 18: Energy consumption in agriculture by subsector in
2015 (UNIT: %)
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husbandry subsector, 18% by others, 16% by agronomy, and 14% by farm work. Last three subsectors forestry, logging and fishing consumed together less than 1% of energy.
In 2015, electricity in Taiwan was mainly generated by coal (44%) and nuclear (14%) power generators. However, nuclear power is planned to be phased out before 2025 with policies implemented by the Democratic Progressive Party elected in January 2016. In April 2015, the Energy Bureau of the Ministry of Economic Affairs warned that closure three operating nuclear plant by 2025 might result in lower economic growth rates by 0.53% decrease in GDP as well as in higher levels of pollution by rise 15% of carbon dioxide emissions. Furthermore, such plan is going to be also very expensive; the price of electricity is expected to increase more than 10%. The government started to obstruct nuclear power generating since December 2014 (EMEA, 2016, p. 6).
6.1.1 Production
The first stage of life cycle of agricultural sector in Taiwan is the production cycle. In this production process, the agricultural electricity consumption considered in this research is following: product cultivation and harvest with electricity, machinery, fuel, and seeds 4.26%, agriculture irrigation 1.77%, animal husbandry with animal feed 4.69%, aquaculture 4.67%, fertilization with nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium 71.66%, and pesticides 12.95%. (COA d, 2016) All these data are summarized in Table 7, “Consumption of energy in production life cycle”. The total agriculture production consumption is accounting 22.117 PJ from which the most energy consuming items are fertilizers 71.66%, particularly nitrogen consuming 63.83%.
Whole life cycles of fertilizers and pesticides alone consumed 84.6% (18.712 PJ) of
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the energy consumed by production stage (22.117 PJ), 13.3% of total consumption of whole life cycle of agriculture sector (140.737PJ) and 3.58% of the total energy consumption in Taiwan (523.16 PJ).
Table 7: Consumption of energy in production life cycle (UNIT: PJ and %)
PJ %
PRODUCTION
Cultivation and harvest 0.942 4.26
Cultivation and harvest 0.942 4.26