4. Pesticides
4.2 Efficiency and Impact on Human Health Analysis
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and damage to the nervous system. Drinking water contaminated by pesticide runoff is a main source of exposure (EPA, 2016). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, for high risk pesticides exists three categories divided according to hazard they cause, namely “may cause cancer”, “may cause genetic defects”, and “may damage fertility the unborn child (FAO, 2016, p. 33).”
4.2 Efficiency and Impact on Human Health Analysis
It is crucial to pay attention to following researches conducted in order to investigate impact of pesticides on human health. The first research was performed by scientists from the University of Montreal and Harvard University releasing a study that has discovered that exposure to organophosphate pesticides is associated with increased risk of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children (ADHD) (Bouchard et al., 2010).
The second study by the Public Health Institute, the California Department of Health Services, and the UC Berkley School of Public Health revealed a six times increase in risk factor for autism spectrum disorder (ADS) for children and women exposed to organochlorine pesticides (Roberts et al., 2007). Organochloride pesticides are in category of Persistent Organic Pollutant, they are able to persist in the environment and even to accumulate to high levels. Thus, they are not only causing increase of autism probability for children six times, but they also pose a risk to the environment by its accumulation and concentration (Tsai, 2010).
In Taiwan, due to the widespread use of pesticides in the agricultural sector, the soil contamination by organochlorine pesticides occurred during 1950s – 1970s,
estimating of two million kilogram of organochlorine pesticides released annually (Vu
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Duc et al., 1993; Doong et al., 2002). Since the 1970s, organochlorine pesticides are banned or restricted and the level of contamination in the environment is being monitored every 10 years since 1980s by the Council of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Administration. Last soil monitoring was conducted between 2004 and 2006. Currently, manufacture, sell, import and use of persistent organic pollutants are officially prohibited in Taiwan (Tsai, 2010).
The third study conducted by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry published a study that found that children who live in homes where their parents use pesticides are twice likely to develop brain cancer compare to those who live in place where no pesticides are used (S.T.A.T.E., 1995).
The fourth study, the National Cancer Institute in 1989 reported children develop leukemia six times more often when pesticides are used around their home.
“Pesticides with high acute toxicity can affect people who are preparing, mixing or using pesticides, but also by-standers, people entering treated fields, consumers eating treated produce too soon after application, etc. Other handling during
which such pesticides can pose risk include storage, cleaning and storage of
application equipment, disposal of empty containers and contaminated materials such as gloves (FAO, 2016, p. 10).”
In addition, according to the EPA, 95% of the pesticides used on residential lawns are possible or probable carcinogens. Finally, congress found that 90% of the pesticides on the market lack even minimal required safety screening (American Defender Network, 1989; Shultz, 1989). In other words, there are no doubts about the health
Picture 5.: Working with pesticides.
Source: www.google.com.
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risks posed by pesticides during all stages of usage, mainly its application, remains in food, and contaminating environment, as water and soil.
“Besides acute risk of occupational poisoning, several countries documented abroad problem of use of acutely toxic pesticides for self-harm purposes. In several countries, it has been demonstrated that prohibiting or restricting access to such products significantly reduces fatalities due to suicide…Hazards to the environment include contamination of water resources and soils, and acute or chronic toxicity to non-target organisms that may lead to disruption of ecosystem functions, such as pollination or natural pest suppression (FAO, 2016, p. 10).”
According to the Toxic Active Center, “even if we know that a pesticide causes severe health and environmental impacts, including cancer and genetic damage, it may still be allowed for use. The EPA may determine that a cancer-causing chemical may be used despite its public health hazard if its ‘economic, social or environmental’
benefits are deemed greater than its risk. According to the US EPA, more than 70 active ingredients known to cause cancer in animal tests are allowed for use.
Although industry tests for a wide range of environmental and health impacts, the vast majority of pesticides currently on the market have not been fully tested. Pesticides often contain inert ingredients in addition to the active ingredients that are designed to kill the target pest. Unfortunately, the public is not provided information about what inert ingredients are included in pesticides in most cases (Toxics Action Center, 2015).” In other words, human life has been accounted for its value (for example by insurance companies) and if the increased yield of production using pesticides exceed the “cost” of its use, pesticides can be used even with health risk they cause.
However, it is also clear that the majority of pesticides were not tested for their
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negative effect and public is kept in the dark about this whole issue.
One research even found that over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields (Miller, 2004). In other words, the impact of pesticides consists of the effects of pesticides on non-target species. Pesticides are chemical preparations used to kill fungal or animal pests; however, also can influence environment and human health, especially children.
It is quite stunning that the FAO document (FAO, 2016, p. 11) says that health problems are caused by inaccurate using of pesticides, low illiteracy level, limited education, labels in languages different from the mother language of farmers,
insufficient protection equipment, higher price of safe pesticides etc.; however, there is not even one word about problematic of pesticides itself or producing and
distributing these pesticides. The document mentions countries in Sub-Sahara Africa where 60% of population works in agriculture and overall country has problem with poverty. How could these countries produce such high toxic pesticides? Do they invent technology needed or can they afford to buy know-how from developed countries? If factories are located in poor countries who built or finance them? It is obvious that those farmers are only users and victims of the pesticides. Nevertheless, the document is not questioning if there is an elemental need for them or where the high toxic chemicals are produced. Probably, they are produced in or by high income countries since only usage is limited by recommendation of organizations and
agreements caring after human health. Not to mention, chemical concerns producing pesticides can be effectively lobbying for their interest during WHO or any nation’s research process became regular procedure with many records from U.S. Therefore,
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even the international limits set by WHO and other organization are possibly influenced by chemical concerns.
In Taiwan, the use of pesticides increased rapidly from 2 million NTD in 1952, 662 million NTD in 1979 (Li, G.C., 1979), 4.78 billion NTD in 2002, and, finally, to 7.69 billion NTD in 2015. Below are pictures for comparison of proper protection
equipment, Picture 6A and Picture 6B (below) with pictures taken in Taiwan, Picture 7A and Picture 7B (below). To conclude, not all farmers in Taiwan use the proper protection equipment and pose themselves to health risk.
According to Taiwan Agriculture Chemicals and Toxic Substances Research
Picture 6A. Proper protection
Picture 6B. Proper protection equipment.
Picture 7A. Applying pesticide with a dust mask in Taiwan.
Picture 7B. Applying pesticide without any protection in Taiwan.
Pictures 6A – 7B. Source: www.google.com
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Institute, Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan, nearly every two years are exposed some pesticides which could be directly connected to cause cancer, toxicity or other serious illnesses (TACTRI). Thus, in Taiwan, chemicals are being used without clear and researched side effects and impact on human health. This institute has many publications but the majority is not provided to the public. Those available shows that heavy metals are increasing in plants, rice and shellfish in Taiwan. Still below the international limit in 2004, but already getting closer to the limit (Lin, Haw-Tarn, 2004; Li, G.C., et al., 1994). While in 1979 many heavy metals, such as mercury, were below the detectable limit of research devices (Li, G.C., 1979). Unfortunately, there are no publications concerning this issue since 2004, even when it can pose serious health risk to human health of Taiwanese nation.
In 2010, a research investigating persistent organic pollutants in Taiwan concludes that there has been significant progress about declining residual levels of persistent organic pollutants. The persistent organic pollutants are aldrin, chlordane,
chlordecone, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene,
α/β-hexachlorocyclohexanes, lindane, mirex, pentachloro-benzene, and toxaphene. These pollutants are very stable and resist photolytic, biological and chemical degradation.
They also tend to accumulate in food chains and human bodies. There is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals proving that chlordecine, DDT, hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorocyclohexane, lindane, mirex, and toxaphene are reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen. The most important milestone was the Stockholm Convention signed in 2004 which contributed to reduction of exposure of humans and the ecosystem to organochloride pesticides. Taiwan is not a member of the Stockholm Convention, but implemented the content into domestic work on 2008.
The Stockholm Convention formerly includes aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin,
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endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, and toxaphene. Later in 2010, new persistent organic pollutants were added, namely hexachlorocyclohexane,
chlordecone, lindane, and pentachlorobenzene (Tsai, 2010).
The data concerning pesticides production, consumption, export and import between 2006 and 2015 are summarized in Figure 10, “Pesticides by quantity in Taiwan 2015”
(above). Clearly, production, import, and export, all are increasing overall. The most significant increase is in export which more than doubled over time. In observed period of time, the mean of pesticides consumption is 8,932 m.t. with lowest level of 7,851 m.t. in 2010 and highest levels in 2007 and 2013 with 9,792 m.t. and 9,636 m.t.
respectively. There is no significant increase in pesticides consumption, but compare to fertilizers, there is also not decrease at all.
Pesticides manufacturing involves the extensive use of energy during production, because many pesticides are derived from petroleum chemicals, mainly ethylene, propylene, and methane. Electricity, natural gas, steam, and other petroleum sources are also used in manufacturing for such process as heating, distillation, stirring, and
8,506 8,900 8,838 8,140 7,881 7,702 8,715 8,764 9,597 10,560
9,114 9,792 8,782 8,589 7,851 8,254 9,396 9,632 8,619 9,295
2,305 2,815 2,592 2,522 2,280 2,200 3,164 3,081 3,043 3,013
1,944 2,224 2,648 2,074 2,310 1,648 2,483 2,213 4,021 4,278
2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5
FIGURE 10: PESTICIDES BY QUANTITY IN TAIWAN 2015 (UNIT: METRIC TON)
Production Consumption Import Export
Data source: ASY, 2015.
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drying. Other inputs of energy also occur in the construction and maintenance of the manufacturing plant and equipment, import of raw materials, export of waste, and the many energies involved in human operations.
For the computation of the produced and consumed pesticides in Taiwan for year 2015, ratios provided by the Council of Agriculture in the Agriculture Yearbook 2015 (ASY, 2015) were used. This data were presented in Table 4 “Pesticides’ Total
Production and Consumption in Taiwan 2015” (below). In 2015, total produced pesticides accounted 10,560 m.t. and the total consumed amount was 9,295 m.t.
Data source: ASY, 2015.
Table 5: World average of energy requirements for produce, package, transport, and apply pesticides (UNIT: kJ/kg)
Produce 243,355
Package 9,100
Transport 15,750
Apply 5,600
Total 273,805
Data source: Ferraro, 2007.
Produced and consumed pesticides in metric tons are converted into energy with Table 5 “World average of energy requirement for produce, package, transport, and
Table 4: Pesticides’ total production and consumption in Taiwan 2015 (UNIT: m.t.)
Pesticides
Produced 10,560
Consumed 9,295
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apply pesticides” (above) computed by Ferraro (2007). Production and packaging parts are calculated with produced pesticides and transportation with application are calculated with consumed amount of pesticides. In the case of import and export, due to lack of information pesticides are also omitted from calculation as it was made in the case of fertilizers and this makes the result of energy as the minimal energy consumption by pesticides’ life cycle. The result is displayed in Table 6, “Total energy requirement for produce, package, transport, and apply pesticides in Taiwan”
(below). The total energy consumed during whole life cycle of pesticides’ production, packaging, transportation, and application accounted 2,864,373.05 GJ, equivalent to 2.864 PJ or to 795.7228 GWh, in Taiwan 2015.
Table 6: Total energy requirements for produce, package, transport, and apply pesticides in Taiwan (UNIT: GJ/kg)
Produce 2,569,828.8
Package (produced) 96,096
Transport (consumed) 146,396.25
Apply (consumed) 52,052
Total 2,864,373.05
Total in PJ 2.864
Source: own calculation based on Ferraro’s (2007) world average data;
ASY, 2015.
There are no available data for the whole process of pesticides production which starts from raw materials produced in Taiwan or if it is used already as half processed input.
Thus, the total consumed energy required to produce pesticides is not necessary all consumed in Taiwan and can exceed the real energy consumption in Taiwan;
however, it is important to calculate the whole process and consumption of energy regardless of country’s origin to obtain the real environmental price.
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Figure 11, “Average price of pesticides in Taiwan between 1994 and 2015” (below) shows changes in the average price of pesticides over the last two decades from 1994 to 2015. In this period of time, there are two very significant increases in price in 2003 and 2008, from 133 NTD/kg to 149 NTD/kg in 2003 and from 128 NTD/kg to 152 NTD/kg in 2008. The price development is quite unstable and each rapid decrease in price results in following rapid increase until 2010 when price rise in more stable manner. In the last part of observed period of time, the average price (139 NTD/kg) is close to the average price in 1994 (140 NTD/kg).