Approaches and Strategies

4.3.1 Adopting a variety of strategies in learning history

Given the wide range of objectives to be achieved in this curriculum, there is no single approach that can satisfy all the requirements. Teachers should therefore adopt a variety of approaches and strategies to suit the content and focuses of learning, and to respond to learners’ different needs. The suggestions made in this Guide are by no means the only approaches/activities for teaching the topics specified in the examples. They are provided for reference only.

The figure on the next page is the basic framework of learning and teaching adopted by the senior secondary History curriculum. It shows the spectrum of approaches available for different purposes. They can be intertwined and complement each other. The examples placed along the spectrum aim to illustrate the more significant learning outcomes that can be achieved, though in fact students may achieve more than one learning target during the same learning process. A learning outcome can also be attained by more than one type of strategy.

The examples below are further elaborated in the appendices.

Learning as …

a product a process co-construction

Learning community



(Pedagogy and assessment) Meaningful learning



Generic skills



(curriculum) Content knowledge

(sources, understanding, structure and nature)

Teaching as …

direct instruction enquiry co-construction

School examples of A, B, C, D and E can be found in Appendices 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 respectively.

Figure 4.1 Approaches to Learning and Teaching

Direct instruction by teachers

Direct instruction by teachers is most relevant to contexts where explanation is required to help students grasp the background and key ideas of a historical event concisely and coherently within limited teaching time. It is the quickest and most direct way to bring essential information to the attention of students. It can be used to: arouse interest in a subject;

complement and clarify text materials; rectify factual and conceptual misunderstandings evident in discussion or the enquiry learning process; or attend to individual learners’

problems and needs.

Direct instruction matches the learning preferences of students who prefer to get the main points quickly through an organised lecture provided by a knowledgeable teacher, or from notes provided by the teacher. Such whole-class teaching has been shown in numerous international studies to have a positive effect on student learning and achievement among Asian students.

In direct instruction, classroom interaction is primarily teacher-directed. This allows more control over the aims, content, organisation, pace and direction of lessons. However, it encourages students to rely on authority and does not help them to form their own beliefs on

A B

C

D

E

the basis of independent reasoning. Teachers need to allow sufficient time for discussion-based enquiry in a History classroom after adopting direct instruction.

Please refer to Appendix 2 for an example of the use of a direct instruction approach.

Enquiry by students

Enquiry by students can be viewed as an alternative to direct instruction, or a continuation of the learning process after background knowledge has been provided by the teachers, and students are required to carry out more in-depth analysis. Teachers become facilitators of learning and use “open-ended” questions to lead students to conduct their own enquiry, which require the use of higher-order thinking skills to understand and analyse sources, compare and interpret historical data, detect biased viewpoints and make sound judgments based on evidence.

To initiate student enquiry, teachers can link students’ prior knowledge and experience to the issue to be explored. A brief brainstorming session may suffice to prompt students’ initial views on the topic under consideration. Teachers should also find out how much students have understood from their enquiry by asking them to draw concept maps to represent their knowledge of the topic, for example.

Please refer to Appendix 3 for an example on the use of an enquiry approach.

Enquiry can take place during interactive whole-class teaching or peer interaction in pairs or groups. Teachers design suitable learning tasks, discussion themes and other learning activities to help students work together and learn from one another, to achieve outcomes they could not have achieved separately. Group discussion and role-play are two of the commonly employed strategies in classroom interactions and dialogues.

When students are engaged in group discussion, they learn through having to articulate their thoughts and views to others, seeing how the others react to their articulations and having to listen to others’ viewpoints which challenge their own. To make group discussions effective, teachers should assign clear tasks for the groups to accomplish, provide appropriate materials for discussion, and allocate specific duties (e.g. convener, recorder, observer, etc.) to group members.

Please refer to Appendix 4 for an example of a group discussion in a History classroom.

Role-play is an effective strategy for engaging students in exploring controversial issues, in which various parties have different interests and views on the topic under consideration.

Playing roles that are remote from their own experience helps to expand students’ horizons.

They can also experience the possible feelings, emotions and reactions of the parties concerned and thus learn to develop an empathetic understanding of others’ situations, feelings and values. Such understanding is deepened by including contrasting views in discussions and debates so that a comparative perspective can be formed.

Controversial and sensitive issues are bound to arise in the teaching of contemporary history.

Through interactive activities, teachers can help students to develop critical thinking ability and problem-solving skills, so that they can distinguish fact from opinion, detect bias and draw logical conclusions based on adequate evidence. In tackling value-laden issues, interactive activities encourage students to enquire into the nature of the issues involved and to engage in debates using higher-order thinking skills.

Strategies such as group discussion and role-play, if effectively employed, are consistent with the notion of learning as a process of constructing knowledge. Knowledge is not something out there to be discovered, but an understanding to be built through the sharing of thoughts and viewpoints. The understanding thus constructed is subject to the experiences and insights of the group members, the issues examined, the information available and the contexts in which the discussion and role-play take place.

Interactive activities enable students to develop social skills, organise their thinking, and develop rational arguments. Teachers can become partners in learning, through sharing their thoughts, insights and feelings about historical figures and incidents. They may do this in a de-briefing session after a group discussion or role-play activity. Co-construction of knowledge is achieved when teachers and students make use of their conclusions, consensus or disagreements to construct new knowledge together.

Please refer to Appendix 5 for an example of the use of interactive activities.

4.3.2 Choosing appropriate strategies

The learning and teaching strategies suggested in the following paragraphs aim to incorporate the various approaches outlined above. Teachers are encouraged to consider adopting them in History lessons, where appropriate. However, these strategies should not be deployed merely for the sake of increasing the variety of classroom activities. Teachers need to exercise their professional judgment to select a suitable mix of strategies and use them in an appropriate

manner so as to motivate students to become autonomous learners, and to support them in the knowledge-construction process.

Source-based learning and reading to learn

Historians base their research on sources, which they analyse to find out if they provide any evidence that is relevant to a particular historical enquiry. History students need to develop the skills involved in analysing historical sources, as it is an integral part of their historical enquiry. They should ask the following questions in their analysis:

Typical questions to be asked in analysing a historical source

 Is it a primary or secondary source?

 When was it produced?

 Who produced it (e.g. an eyewitness/ someone involved in the event/ someone writing about what he/she has heard or researched)?

 From whose perspective was the source written?

 Why was it written or produced (e.g. personal motives/ political reasons/ propaganda, etc.)?

 Who was the intended audience?

 How reliable is it? Does it give a detached, balanced account or is it biased?

 Is it supported by other sources?

 How useful is it for an enquiry into a particular issue/aspect of history?

The use of source materials in learning history is instrumental in stimulating students’

enquiry, imagination and empathetic thinking. Teachers should enable their students to acquire the techniques that can help them to read with understanding, locate and use information, and formulate arguments. In addition, students should be taught how to use the language relevant to the topics being studied, including terms to express causality and chronology, and the language devices that enable students to present an argument logically, to express hypotheses, and to make comparisons.

Students who are interested in reading will read on their own, but their interest needs to be sustained. They should not confine their reading to textbooks. Quality reading materials from a wide variety of sources (print and non-print) can be chosen to enhance their understanding of the topics being studied, and help them to learn to respect different points of view, make sound judgments from varying interpretations, and strike a balance between impartiality and

empathetic thinking.

Those uninterested in reading need to be taught how to locate reading materials, and supported to find anything relevant that interests them, so that they are motivated to read more. They should be taught to use the library catalogue to compile bibliography, and make notes and footnotes. These are essential to essay-writing and the preparation for presentation, debate and simulation. Constant and extensive use of library resources helps to broaden students’ historical perspective. The ultimate aim is to develop students into independent and willing readers.

Using information technology as a tool in learning history

The Internet has become an important source for learning history as it provides access to libraries, museums and history experts around the world. However, the vastness of the information it contains can be overwhelming. Students should be advised to set clear goals and directions for searching, and cautioned against aimless wandering in the Net as they look for information. They should also be equipped with effective search techniques and information-processing skills, so that they do not end up with meaningless copy-and-paste material.

Students should also be made aware that each site is constructed by an individual or an organisation for a purpose, and that there is little censorship or quality control of websites.

They should learn to tell whether the information a website contains is reliable or biased.

Project learning and historical enquiry

Project learning, as a form of historical enquiry, makes learning beyond the classroom feasible. Students can work on topics they are interested in and design their own schedules of work. In this way, the skills that students acquire during the learning process can develop their independence in learning and enhance their capacity for lifelong learning.

Historical investigation is put into practice in the Elective Part of the curriculum, in which students are required to carry out their own mini-research work on an area of interest to them.

This part of the curriculum aims to develop students’ intellectual skills, or one particular group of concepts, for example in Local heritage studies.

To be effective, a project also depends on the teacher’s skill as a supervisor and provider of guidance. Teachers should monitor students’ progress in their mini-research work and

cultivate better study habits and skills through the feedback they provide.