Author, translator and illustrator

One of the biggest difference between the first six copies published in the 17^th century and the latter six books are the contributions of the author. Although they are all Aesop’s Fables, only the latter six books all have their authors’ name inscribed on the cover.

Both author and illustrator’s names are inscribed on the cover. The Croxall version was done by Samuel Croxall. Samuel Croxall (c.1690 – 1752) was an Anglican churchman, writer and translator, particularly noted for his edition of Aesop's Fables. It is important to note that this version was the 13^th edition. “The first version under the same title was published in 1722 with a preface that relates the life of the "great Aesop" from "the good old authors" like Phaedrus and Aristotle. Croxall's collection was printed in small format editions that dominated Aesop in English for nearly two centuries.”

(Library.illinois.edu, n.d.) As a translator, Croxall might have modified or made changes to those fables he selected. With the title of Aesop’s Fables, the authorship nevertheless was still contributed to Croxall himself.

The second book was by Thomas Bewick (c.1753–1828), an English animal artist and engraver, born near Newcastle upon Tyne, where he spent most of his life. This is reflected by the cover art which has a scene believed to be Newcastle. This edition of Aesop’s fables features Bewick’s wood engraving. Bewick was a famous artist in his own time. He is also regarded as the father of modern wood engraving and his works can still charm us today. We will get to see more of his works in the section 4.2.4. It is

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intriguing to see that Aesop’s fables were originally a textual source. However, through the eyes and hands of an artist, Bewick translated these fables in his own way and turned them into pieces of art. It was not made clear who the translator of the Bewick version was. Yet, owning to Bewick’s outstanding and exquisite wood engravings, Thomas Bewick was titled as the author of his own edition of Aesop’s Fables. The various editions of Aesop's Fables illustrated by Bewick span almost his entire creative career.

The first was created for the Newcastle bookseller Thomas Saint during his apprentice years, an edition of Robert Dodsley's Select Fables published in 1776. The version selected in this paper was the large three-volume edition done in his later life in 1818.

Thomas James (c. 1804-1863) was the author of the 1848 edition of Aesop’s Fables.

There is not much information regarding his life. We only know that he was an assistant master at the Charterhouse (1832), and rector of Theddingworth (1842). He was educated in Eton and later lived among the clergy. It is believed that he received education both in Latin and English thus potentially made a competent translator. This version was particularly known for its illustrations by John Tenniel (c.1820-1914).

Tenniel was an English illustrator and political cartoonist. His work was prominent during the second half of the 19^th century. Readers might not recognize him from his work on Aesop’s Fables. He is better known for his illustration for Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass.

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Figure 29 Alice with March Hare, Hatter and Dormouse at the Mad Tea Party

Figure 30 Alice with sleeping Red and White Queen

Baby’s Own Aesop was published in 1887 by Walter Crane (c. 1845-1915), an English artist and book illustrator. Crane is considered to be the most influential, and among the most prolific, children’s authors of his generation. ("Walter Crane", the Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, n.d.) He was not only an artist and writer but also an active

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socialist. Crane had made a name for himself as early as the 1860s as an illustrator of alphabets and nursery rhymes (Crane, 1877) for small children. His edition of Aesop’s Fables was also in rhyme and included morals illustrated by him. Yet when reading closely, one can see that the book’s illustrator was not Walter Crane himself, only authored of text. The illustrator was Edmund Evans (c. 1826-1905) who is principally remembered for his color-printing of children's books. Evans specialized in full color printing which is a prominent feature of the Crane version of Aesop’s Fables. Evans first employed Walter Crane to illustrate book covers in 1863 and thus began their long-lasting cooperative relationship. Crane illustrated books which were engraved and printed by Evans. The commercial success of those books established Crane as one of the most popular illustrators of children's books in England. (Humphrey Carpenter, Mari Prichard, 1984)

The 1909 edition of Aesop’s Fables was by Edward Julius Detmold (c.1883-1957), a prolific book illustrator. He is well known for his animal illustrations and their natural environment. He and his twin brother were both artists and had displayed their talents at a young age. They organized an exhibition of watercolors at the Royal Academy when they were 13 and had a portfolio of etchings published in 1898. However, in 1908 Edward’s brother committed suicide at the age of 24. (Bpib.com, n.d.) Stunned by the sudden death of his twin brother, Edward immersed himself in his work. Consequently in 1909, he illustrated “the Fables of Aesop” which is the fifth work we have selected.

Though the cover is rather plain and simple compared to the other five books, illustrations of the Detmold version are stunning and use exuberant colors. We will see more of his creations in section 4.2.4. This edition is said to define and raise him up as one of the best animal illustration artists. It is to note that the name of the translator for the Detmold version is not made clear.

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The last edition was by Joseph Jacobs in 1922. Joseph Jacobs (c.1854-1916) was a scholar, folklorist, literary critic, historian and writer of English literature. “He published a great deal of books and articles about anthropological and folkloric subjects.” (Harris, n.d.) As a master of many languages, Jacobs translated Hebrew, Italian and Spanish works, and brought out new editions of English classics. In 1989 he edited The Fables of Aesop as First Printed by William Caxton. Jacobs collected, researched and produced his own folk tales and became a notable collector and publisher of English Folklore. The artist for the Jacob version is Richard Heighway (c.1832-1917). Heighway was an illustrator, noted for his black and white designs of Aesop's fables. His black and white illustrations are said to be influenced by the English illustrator Walter Crane. (Philaathenaeum.org, n.d.)

It is interesting to see that these six editions of Aesop’s fables were not published by and an educational institution or a school master but rather by an illustrator, printer, translator, Anglican rector, writer and a scholar specialized in folklore. These authors selected their own fables and had them illustrated by talented and skilled artists which makes the fables become so splendid and entertaining. It is also intriguing to see what makes these people want to publish Aesop’s Fables and look if their occupation or profession affects the author’s choice of fables. Regardless of their intention and purpose, it is already evident that after the mid-18^th century, Aesop’s Fables were no longer exclusive to the schoolmaster’s interpretation.

4.2.3 Front matter

The front matter of the Croxall version consists of three parts. The first is a dedication, second the preface and the third part is the table of contents. In the dedication, Croxall dedicated the work to George, Baron Halifax whom Croxall lavishly introduced as "the most lovely and the most engaging Child that ever was born." In the dedication, it can

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be seen that Croxall valued truth and virtue and considered it important to foster these values in children. Fables, to Croxall, were full of instruction; moral and political and they could be used as a guide for people in life. He believed that fables were seeds of reason and philosophy and may rectify and sweeten a child’s future. Croxall continued to say that the style and the language of this work may be flawed but the honest purpose of the whole would not fail the child. Croxall also mentions the father of the child. He considers the father to possess every agreeable quality in life. Though the dedication was meant for the child, it is plausible that the real person Croxall wanted to praise was the father, the Earl of Halifax and indirectly dedicate the work to hm. Croxall thought that the decent quality possessed by the Earl of Halifax was so habitual but at the same time so accomplished. Thus he inferred that “we cannot but discover they have had the advantage of a finished education.” To Croxall, education was crucial to foster a healthy and righteous mind. It can be concluded that Croxall expected to use fables and their instruction as the scaffold of a child’s early education. The second part of the Croxall version is the preface. Croxall states, in the very beginning, that ”so much has been already said concerning Aesop and his writings, both by ancient and modern authors, that the subject seems to be quite exhausted.” He points out that the complete account of the life of Aesop was invented by a Greek Monk Planudes. We know that Planudes’

collection of Aesop’s fables was the most comprehensive copy in the Middle ages.

Croxall also praises his effort and wisdom in amassing these fables. However, Croxall claims that “for a monk, he might be very good and wise, but in point of history and chronology, he shows himself to be very ignorant.” He then exhausts two pages condemning Planudes. He points out that, concerning the history, Planudes sent Aesop to Egypt in the days of Nectanebo, who would not be born till two hundred years after the suggested time and never mentions Aesop being in Athens. “With some other gross mistakes of that kind, which sufficiently shows us that this life was a work of invention”

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Croxall criticized, “that the inventor was a bungling, poor creature.” Croxall points out that there was indeed a life of Aesop, before Aristotle’s time, though its description was quite plain. He then provides a few examples of those ancient Philosophers and their accounts of Aesop. He concludes that “thus we see, whatever his person was, the beauties of his mind were very charming and engaging; that the most celebrated among the ancients were his admirers.” It can also be inferred that Croxall considered Aesop a real historical figure. After bashing Planudes, Croxall points his finger at another Author who composed his own version of Aesop’s fables, Sir Roger L’Estrange. We earlier introduced his 17th century’s copy of Aesop’s Fables. L’Estrange published his own selection of fables and reflections. L’Estrange principally intended his book to be used as instructional material for children; who being, as it were, blank sheets of paper, ”are ready indifferently for any opinion, good or bad, taking all upon credit; and that it is in the power of the first comer to write saint or devil upon them, which he pleases.” Croxall sarcastically agrees with L’Estrange, saying that “This being truly and certainly the case, what poor devils would L’Estrange make of those children, who should be so unfortunate as to read his book, and imbibe his pernicious principles!

Principles coined and suited to promote the growth, and serve the ends, of popery and arbitrary power.” Croxall argues that L’Estrange’s edition was nothing but a tool he used to promote his own ideology. In every political situation, L’Estrange showed himself to be a prominent defender of the popish faction. According to Croxall, L’Estrange notoriously perverted both the content and meaning of several fables, particularly when any political instruction was couched in the content. This is not something to be allowed by Croxall. He composed this newly edited version so as to let the minds of the British youth be forever educated and foster that spirit of truth and liberty. Croxall believed that he carried the responsibility to offer children candid and truthful fables. He leaves the interpretation and applicability up to the judgment of the

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readers and states that he is a lover of liberty and truth; an enemy to tyranny, either by the church or the state. The last part of the Croxall version has a table of contents arranged alphabetically. From Croxall’s dedication and preface, we learn that he was very concerned about the education and well-being of children. He believed that fables serve as a great material to enrich their childhood and meanwhile nurture their mind.

However, he points out that both Planudes and Sir Roger L’Estrange perverted fables in their own way. Hence he wanted to mend this mistake and provide children with an honest and truthful publication.

The Bewick version’s front matter contains three parts. Frist is a preface containing a dedication, second an introduction and the third part is as table of contents. In the preface, Bewick points out that the publisher was stimulated by an ardent desire to render this edition as agreeable as possible for the reader’s sake. Throughout the entire preface, we can see that Bewick was a very religious man He believed that God was the most omnipotent being existence and it is humanity’s duty to live a life of decency.

He believed that “when religion and morality are blended together in the mind, they impart their blessings to all who seek the aid of the one and obey the dictates of the other, and their joint effects are seen and felt in the perpetual cheerfulness they impart.”

He considered it equally important that the youth should perceive the duties imposed upon them by society and fulfill them. However if the young are not carefully educated or fostered, vice and folly would enter their mind and render their life miserable.

Bewick thought that fables served as a medium for the innocent and inexperienced to have a glimpse of the real world. Fables teach people how to discern kindness and machinations. He argued that our feeble reason is too weak to comprehend the divine essence, nevertheless, we can know and fulfill our religious obligation. In doing so, men will learn to be humble and faithful. This edition, accruing to Bewick, “attempted

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to point out to youth the exterior of the temple of virtue, and to lead them to its steps, the Editor leaves them there, respectfully recommending them to explore the whole interior.” Bewick exhibits his strong view on religion in the preface. For him fables were offered to readers, especially the youth, to learn morality and virtue which is the best way to serve God and his divine will. The second part is the introduction. Bewick begs with a statement “From time to time, in all ages, men inspired, or gifted with a superior degree of intellectual power, have appeared upon the stage of life, in order (by enlightening others) to fulfil the designs of Omnipotence.” Again he demonstrates his strong belief in his own religion. He explains that in olden times when people were ignorant and uncivilized they were too occupied by war. Tyrants and men in positions of power forced people to obey and the voice of truth could only reach their ears through allegory and fable. He also traces Aesop’s life and clarifies that the Planudes’ account is not entirely plausible. As Croxall, he lists philosophers or authors in ancient times who mention Aesop and he also believes that Aesop was a real figure in history. In the last paragraph of the introduction, Bewick talks about other versions of Aesop’s Fables including the one by William Caxton. Bewick’s introduction reveals that Croxall’s version had the most sales at the time which also serves as an indication of the popularity Aesop’s Fables enjoyed.

The front matter of the James version consist of two parts only. The first part is the introduction by James and the second part is a list of illustration. James first briefly introduces Aesop’s life and the circulation of his fables. Fables spread because of grave talkers and inquisitive travelers. People gathered the works of great Poets to preserve the wisdom of antiquity and accommodate them for the use of new orders of things. He stated that Aesop “made the politics and morals of the day his study, but clothed his lectures in the garb of Imagination and Fancy.” James does not consider Aesop merely

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a court-jester but a man who amuses and yet provides instruction. He gives a few examples of how Aesop managed to resolve conflicts and issues using his wit. He states that Aesop was believed to have been killed by the Delphians. James also points out that they suffered from plague as a consequence. As James states “Their craft was in danger; and the enraged guardians of the temple of the great God of Greece.” In James introduction, he also mentions that the account of Aesop’s life by Planudes is ridiculous.

James also argues that Aesop was not absolutely the inventor of all the Fables. He believes that stories were accumulated and handed down from generation to generation.

He then gives other examples of fables and their application in history. That being said, James clarifies that Aesop was one of the first and most successful in adopting fables as a general vehicle for instruction. Like Croxall and Bewick, James brings up a few historical figures and their accounts on Aesop. James points out that fables were initially oral narration and highly flexible. He suggests that “In later times, writers, equally with speakers, preserving the traditionary outline of the fable, filled it up in their own words; while all the good stories afloat upon the surface of conversation became, naturally enough, referred to the great master in that style of composition.” As a consequence alterations and variations of fables seem to be reasonable. James points out that this version also includes a wide variety of sources. He applauds the recent discovery of the long-lost Fables of Babrius which was also included in his edition. He argues that “when Fables were first spoken, they were supposed to convey their own moral along with them, or else they were spoken in vain; and even when first written, the application given was that of the particular occasion, not of general inference.” This all seems to be James’ justification for his own selection and perhaps interpretation of the fables. At the end of the introduction, James expresses his gratitude towards the illustrator who enriched and enhanced the value of his edition. James’ intention of composing his own edition of Aesop’s fables seems a bit obscured and veiled. We know

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that he was a rector who devoted his life to religion. Though he does not mention

that he was a rector who devoted his life to religion. Though he does not mention