不只是兒童文學：伊索寓言功能流變

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(1)國立臺灣師範大學翻譯研究所碩士論文 A Thesis Presented to The Graduation Institute of Translation and Interpretation National Taiwan Normal University. 指導教授：賴慈芸博士 Thesis Advisor: Dr. Tzuyun Lai. 不只是兒童文學：伊索寓言功能流變 Beyond Children’s Literature: On Aesop’s Fables and Their Functional Shifts. 研究生：林憶珊 By I-Shan Lin. 中華民國一百零四年六月 June 2015.

(2) 致謝在鍵盤上敲出致謝兩個字，感覺很奇妙，碩士生活真的要畫下句點了。這兩年在翻譯所的學習非常充實，我從翻譯所每位教授身上，學到的不僅只是書本知識、實務訓練，更重要的是思辨、批判的能力，以及面對翻譯時應有的態度。和翻譯所的同學彼此相互砥礪，也讓我的想法變得更靈活、更有彈性。我會想念在翻譯所學習的日子，感謝每一位我遇到的人，從你們身上，我都學習到了些什麼，也因此讓我更認識自己。謝謝廖柏森所長，不論什麼時候，所長總是非常鼓勵我，也從不吝於讚美。謝謝根芳老師，您的課堂以及智慧讓我重新檢視自己許多思考的弱點以及偏誤。謝謝舒白老師，您對於學習、求知以及做事的態度，也讓我體認到很多自己的不足。非常感謝我的論文指導老師賴慈芸老師，如果沒有兒童文學與翻譯這堂課，我的論文題目至今可能還沒著落。這堂課的題材多元，每個禮拜的討論與分享都是一次次的啟發與養分，讓我慢慢發掘自己的研究興趣，並加以延伸成為今天的碩論。也謝謝慈芸老師在我碩論撰寫階段的指導以及協助，您總是能夠清楚指出我議論的弱點，並建議我應該怎麼呈獻、修改。和您的討論總是輕鬆卻收穫滿滿，非常感謝您付出的時間以及心力。另外，我也要感謝胡宗文老師以及陳宏淑老師，謝謝您們出席擔任口試委員，從您們的建議以及口試本上的筆記，我體認到做學問時的實事求是以及認真。最後，我還要特別提出幾位朋友，謝謝 Stephanie 付出自己的時間，協助我修改論文最後兩章的內容。謝謝 Trista 總是關心我的進度，替我加油打氣。謝謝 Alexi 給予我的各種幫助以及建議，還有 Verena，謝謝你欣賞我的古怪個性，也謝謝你一路上的支持。謝謝大家，也希望未來你們不論在哪裡，都能生活地愉快、順心。最後，我要感謝我的家人，你們是最重要、也是我最想要感謝的。謝謝乾爹乾媽照顧我、料理我的生活，因為你們，在臺北求學一點都不寂寞，還幸福肥了很多。謝謝弟弟總是可以逗我發笑，緩和我寫論文的壓力。謝謝 Ruben 沒有極限的耐心和愛，陪我度過許多修改論文的夜晚，謝謝你總是告訴我我是最棒的。謝謝爸爸、媽媽在我撰寫論文時無條件的包容以及關愛，更讓我在沒有經濟壓力的情況下，努力學習、完成學業，沒有你們就沒有我。最後的最後，謝謝我的公主姊姊，若不是你在一旁督促、鼓勵我，我也不可能在兩年內畢業，是你讓我發揮出我積極的一面，也是你讓我不斷充實自我、變成一個更好的人。我愛你們，謝謝你們。. II.

(3) Abstract Aesop’s Fables characterized by talking animals are usually simple, terse, and carry morals that teach children virtues and foster their young mind. However, when Aesop’s Fables were first invented, they were not written for children. The fables were rhetorical materials for orators, philosophers and sophists who used them to illustrate their teachings or oration. Some fables in ancient times were coarse and brutal. In England during the Middle Ages, fables became one of the most used materials for anecdotes. Monks compiled manuscripts, studied, appropriated, and preached the fables to illustrate their religious doctrines. During the Renaissance when the classics were rediscovered, scholars found Aesop’s Fables perfect for young children to learn and to practice Latin and Greek. Editions of Aesop’s Fables designed for language learning were specifically used in grammar schools and functioned as language learning materials for a few centuries. Well into the English Enlightenment, there was no longer a need for learning Latin or Greek. People advocated for new ideas, and during this time, the area of children’s development and education was crucial. Aesop’s Fables, owing to their nature, were edited, illustrated and turned into teaching materials for the youth. Though some publications were still stringent and too difficult for children to read, the English Enlightenment laid the foundation for Aesop’s Fables to become the most enduring and used source of children’s literature. Throughout history, Aesop’s Fables have undergone a series of shifts in functional use. Numerous editions and translations were created to meet different ends. Aesop’s Fables are an organic form of literature that continue to change, grow and thrive. Its nature remains the same, its implication however has been significantly enriched and broadened because of translations. Keywords: Aesop’s Fables, function, rhetoric, exemplum, children’s literature, language, translation. I.

(4) 摘要伊索寓言為家喻戶曉的兒童啟蒙讀物，故事多以動物為主角，敘述淺顯易懂、篇幅精簡、清晰，再利用故事的內容闡明一則則人生道理。但是伊索寓言在上古世紀卻非只是兒童讀物，而是辯論家在論說時用以隱射、舉例的修辭材料，有些故事甚至兒童不宜。伊索寓言在中古世紀被作為神職人員講道時的證道故事，文藝復興時期成了文法學校的語言學習材料，啟蒙時代的伊索寓言更扮演著啟發孩童想像的讀物。如此多變的功能，變的不是伊索寓言的本質，而是不同時代、不同翻譯的作法。本論文以時間作為主軸，闡釋各階段伊索寓言的形貌，分析出版品的形式與內容，描述伊索寓言的功能轉變。第一章探討伊索問題以及寓言體，第二章為修辭材料以及證道故事，第三章分析六本十七世紀出版之伊索寓言，探究語言學習材料的內涵，第四章分析六本十八世紀中葉至十九世紀中葉的伊索寓言，進一步描述、分析伊索寓言在啟蒙時期的轉變，第五章綜覽二十一世紀的伊索寓言，包含其功能、形式以及應用。最後一章結論針對先前的論述加以重整。不同時期的翻譯，針對其預期的使用者需求，都會加以調整內容、形式。本研究認為伊索寓言的功能轉變也呼應了歷史的時間線，其內涵也從最早的修辭功能，不斷擴大、增加、改變。未來研究可朝文本之廣度、深度以及語言、地區著手。本研究透過描述、解析不同時期的伊索寓言，進一步剖析被挪用、刪減、變形的文本，看見翻譯如何被創造、被定義。. 關鍵字：伊索寓言、功能、修辭、證道故事、兒童文學、語言、翻譯. II.

(5) Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................. 1 1.1. Who’s Aesop? ............................................................................................ 2. 1.2. Aesop’s Fables and ancient versions.......................................................... 4. 1.3. Literature review ........................................................................................ 5. Chapter Two: Rhetorical Materials and Exempla .......................................................... 9 2.1. Fables used as rhetorical materials .......................................................... 10 2.1.1. Fable number and form ................................................................ 11. 2.1.2. “Some” special fables .................................................................. 13. 2.1.3. Ever-changing .............................................................................. 18. 2.2. Fables used as exempla ............................................................................ 20. 2.3. Conclusion ............................................................................................... 22. Chapter Three: Language Learning Materials ............................................................. 24 3.1. The selection ............................................................................................ 26. 3.2. Textual analysis ........................................................................................ 30. 3.3. 3.2.1. Covers .......................................................................................... 30. 3.2.2. Authors ......................................................................................... 38. 3.2.3. Front matter .................................................................................. 40. 3.2.4. Fable number and form ................................................................ 50. Conclusion ............................................................................................... 69. Chapter Four: Enlightened Readings for Children ...................................................... 73 4.1. The selection ............................................................................................ 75. 4.2. Textual analysis ........................................................................................ 77 4.2.1. Cover art....................................................................................... 77. 4.2.2. Author, translator and illustrator .................................................. 86 III.

(6) 4.3. 4.4. 4.2.3. Front matter .................................................................................. 90. 4.2.4. Fable number, form and others .................................................. 102. Story choice & contents ......................................................................... 119 4.3.1.. Two fables .................................................................................. 121. 4.3.2.. Proved or disapproved ............................................................... 130. Conclusion ............................................................................................. 132. Chapter Five: Aesop’s Fables in the 21st Century ...................................................... 134 5.1. Heritage of the past ................................................................................ 137. 5.2. New looks .............................................................................................. 151. Chapter Six: Conclusion ............................................................................................ 156 References .................................................................................................................. 161 Appendices ................................................................................................................. 169 Appendix I ......................................................................................................... 169 Appendix II ........................................................................................................ 231 Appendix III ....................................................................................................... 256. IV.

(7) Table of Figures Figure 1 The cover of the 1617 copy ........................................................................... 32 Figure 2 The cover of the 1646 copy ........................................................................... 33 Figure 3 The cover of the 1651 copy ........................................................................... 34 Figure 4 The cover of the 1673 copy ........................................................................... 35 Figure 5 The cover of the 1692 copy ........................................................................... 36 Figure 6 The cover of the 1700 copy ........................................................................... 37 Figure 7 An illustration from the 1651 copy................................................................ 43 Figure 8 Fable No.9 "Of A City Mouse and A Country Mouse" from the 1617 copy (p.7) .......................................................................................................... 50 Figure 9 Fable No.9 "Of A City Mouse and A Country Mouse" from the 1617 copy (p.8) .......................................................................................................... 51 Figure 10 Fable No.21 "Of the Birth of the Mountains" from the 1646 copy (p.18) .. 54 Figure 11 Fable No.34 "The Birds and Beast" from the 1651 copy (pp.44-45) .......... 55 Figure 12 Fable No.139 "Of the Spider and the Goat" ................................................ 60 Figure 13 Fable No.139 "Of the Spider and the Goat" ................................................ 60 Figure 14 Fable No.56 "Of the Peach Tree and the Apple Tree" ................................. 61 Figure 15 The advertisement of the 1673 copy - 1 ...................................................... 62 Figure 16 The advertisement of the 1673 copy - 2 ...................................................... 63 Figure 17 Examples for titles and fonts of the 1692 copy ........................................... 64 Figure 18 The fables and their morals and reflections of the 1692 copy ..................... 65 Figure 19 Fable No.61 "Of the Cock and the Cat" from the 1700 copy (pp.46-47) .... 66 Figure 20 Fable No.87 "Of the Tortoise and the Eagle" from the 1700 copy (pp.60-61) .................................................................................................................. 68 Figure 21 The cover of the Croxall version ................................................................. 78 V.

(8) Figure 22 The cover of the Bewick version ................................................................. 79 Figure 23 The cover of the James version - 1 .............................................................. 80 Figure 24 The cover of the James version - 2 .............................................................. 81 Figure 25 The cover of the Crane version ................................................................... 82 Figure 26 The back of the Crane version ..................................................................... 83 Figure 27 The cover of the Detmold version ............................................................... 84 Figure 28 The cover of the Jacobs version .................................................................. 85 Figure 29 Alice with March Hare, Hatter and Dormouse at the Mad Tea Party .......... 88 Figure 30 Alice with sleeping Red and White Queen .................................................. 88 Figure 31 The preface page of the Crane version ........................................................ 97 Figure 32 The table of contents and errata & addenda of the Crane version ............... 98 Figure 33 The page with Fable "Of the Fox and the Grapes" from the Crane version 98 Figure 34 The edition page numbered and signed by Detmold ................................... 99 Figure 35 Fable No.82 "The Lion and the Frog" from the Croxall version (pp.5-6). 102 Figure 36 Fable "The Cat and the Mice" from the Bewick version – 1 ..................... 104 Figure 37 Fable "The Cat and the Mice" from the Bewick version - 2 ..................... 105 Figure 38 The wood engraving of fable "The Eagle, the Cat and the Sow" .............. 106 Figure 39 The wood engraving of fable "The Porcupine and the Snakes" ................ 106 Figure 40 The wood engraving of fable "The Hart and the Vine" ............................. 106 Figure 41 A tail-piece -1 (p.142) ................................................................................ 107 Figure 42 A tail-piece -2 (p.186) ................................................................................ 107 Figure 43 A tail-piece -3 (p.290) ................................................................................ 107 Figure 44 Fable No. 22 "The Fighting-cocks and the Eagle" from the James version ................................................................................................................ 108 Figure 45 Fable No. 52 "The Travellers and the Bear" from the James version ....... 109 Figure 46 Fable "the Fox and the Crane" from the Crane version ............................. 110 VI.

(9) Figure 47 Fable "the Lion and the Status" from the Crane version ........................... 111 Figure 48 Fable "The Dog and the Shadow" from the Crane version ....................... 111 Figure 49 Fable "Neither Beast nor Bird" from the Crane version ............................ 112 Figure 50 An illustration from the Crane version ...................................................... 112 Figure 51 Fable "The Vain Jackdaw" from the Detmold version ................................................................................................................ 114 Figure 52 Fable "The Pomegranate, the Apple Tree and the Bramble" ..................... 115 Figure 53 Fable "The Lion and the Mouse" from the Jacobs version. .................. 117. Figure 54 Fable "The Fox and the Grapes" from the Jacobs version ........................ 117 Figure 55 Fable "The Two Crabs" from the Jacobs version ...................................... 118 Figure 56 Fable "The Fisherman and the Little Fish" form the Jacobs version......... 118 Figure 57 The illustration of fable "The Fox and the Crane" from the Crane version ................................................................................................................ 124 Figure 58 The illustration of fable "The Fox and the Crane" from the Detmold version ................................................................................................................ 125 Figure 59 The illustration of fable "The Hare an the Tortoise" from the James version ................................................................................................................ 127 Figure 60 The illustration of fable "The Hare and the Tortoise" from the Detmold version .................................................................................................... 129 Figure 61 The cover of The Classical Treasury of Aesop's Fables............................ 136 Figure 62 The cover of The Lion and the Mouse by Jerry Pinkney ........................... 139 Figure 63 An illustration of The Lion and the Mouse by Jerry Pinkney -1 ............... 139 Figure 64 An illustration of The Lion and the Mouse by Jerry Pinkney -2 ............... 140 Figure 65 An illustration of The Lion and the Mouse by Jerry Pinkney -3 ............... 140 Figure 66 The cover of Aesop's Fables by John Cech ............................................... 141 Figure 67 The content page of Aesop's Fables by John Cech ................................... 141 VII.

(10) Figure 68 The cover of Aesop’s Fables by Ayano Imai ............................................. 142 Figure 69 The content of Aesop’s Fables by Ayano Imai .......................................... 142 Figure 70 The cover of Aesop’s Fables by Beverley Naidoo .................................... 143 Figure 71 The content of Aesop’s Fables by Beverley Naidoo.................................. 143 Figure 72 The cover of Aesop's Fables by Ann Mcgovern ........................................ 144 Figure 73 The content of Aesop's Fables by Ann Mcgovern ..................................... 145 Figure 74 The cover of the coloring book ................................................................. 145 Figure 75 The content of the coloring book ............................................................... 146 Figure 76 The cover of Aesop’s Fables by Eric Vincent ............................................ 146 Figure 77 The content of Aesop’s Fables by Eric Vincent ......................................... 147 Figure 78 Fable "The Gnat and The Fly" by the Provensen ...................................... 148 Figure 79 Fable "The Goose with the Golden Eggs" by the Provense ...................... 148 Figure 80 Fable "The Country Mouse and the City Mouse" by the Provensen ......... 149 Figure 81 Fable "The Boy Bathing" .......................................................................... 152 Figure 82 Fable "The Moon and her Mother" ........................................................... 153 Figure 83 Fable "The Horse and the Groom" ............................................................ 153. VIII.

(11) Table of Tables Table 1 Basic information of editions .......................................................................... 30 Table 2 Front matter, part five: the life of Aesop from the 1692 copy ........................ 48 Table 3 Main text: the life of Aesop from the 1651 copy ............................................ 59 Table 4 Basic information of editions .......................................................................... 76. IX.

(12) Chapter One: Introduction. “We yawn at sermons, but we gladly turn to moral tales, and so amused we learn." – Jean de la Fontaine (c.1621-1695). In modern times, Aesop’s Fables are best known as children’s literature. These fables are mostly short and simple to appeal to the concentration span of young children. Animals are depicted in a way that exhibits both commendable and despicable human traits. Most importantly, these fables always carry morals or values which parents are more than happy to teach their kids. An edition of Aesop’s Fables is included in one of the Puffin Classics1 along with todays’ most cherished stories such as the Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, the Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett, and the Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum. In the introduction of “Aesop’s Fables” published by Puffin Classics (Handford, 2013), it reads: “These stories are as ‘fabulous’ as can be, full of talking animals and fantastic events, and yet for that very reason they are free to show us something very true about what we humans are like.” The twin elements of instruction and delight introduces readers to a world where animals talk and plants come alive. However, Aesop’s Fables represent not only children’s literature but also the enduring and earliest forms of human literature. When Aesop’s Fables were first invented, they were not meant for children. Aesop’s books printed for children today, tend to prefer a kinder, gentler sort of fable. Nevertheless, originally Aesop’s Fables were told and used as. 1. Puffin Books is the children's imprint of British publishers Penguin Books. Since the 1960s it has been the largest publisher of children's books in the UK and much of the English-speaking world. Puffin Classics is a series of 128 books selected by Penguin Books as Children’s must read classics. See the website for a complete list. (http://www.penguin.co.uk/recommends/penguin-selections/puffinclassics/) 1.

(13) rhetorical devices in ancient times. Fables were considered an effective method of arguing by example and were a useful rhetorical strategy in politics. Aesop’s Fables made its presence in churches during the Middle Ages, becoming anecdotes used by preachers to illustrate morals or a point of doctrine. As time went by, these fables fell into the hands of school masters and were transformed into language learning materials. Centuries later, they became ideal readings for little children. Aesop’s Fables are by no means simple and have survived throughout history in various disguises. Its function has changed and undergone a series of transitions. Between ancient times to 21st century, there is little studies conducted concerning the transformation of Aesop’s Fables. This paper will investigate how Aesop’s Fables began as teaching materials for rhetoric and how it became one of the most well-known children’s literature in modern times.. 1.1. Who’s Aesop?. For centuries, scholars and anthropologists have debated whether an actual person named Aesop existed; some have speculated that the name Aesop is actually a collective name referring to those who created fables under a secret name. Aesop himself was a shadowy figure in history. His name was mentioned by many great philosophers, yet there’s no concrete proof of his existence and he never wrote down any of his own tales. According to Mary Snodgrass, Aesop was said to be born around the year 620 B.C in Thrace2 and was once a slave on the island of Simons. He served two masters in his life, Xanthus and Idamon. The latter freed him as a reward of his wit and intelligence. As a freeman, Aesop supposedly became involved in public affairs, and began to travel and tell his fables during his political journeys. Aesop eventually died in Delphi3 and. 2. Thrace is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe, centered on the modern borders of Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey. 3 Delphi is both an archaeological site and a modern town in Greece on the south-western spur of Mount Parnassus in the valley of Phocis. 2.

(14) left hundreds of fables behind. (Snodgrass, 1998). Scattered details of Aesop’s life and authenticity can be found in ancient sources. Plato described that Socrates turned some Aesop’s Fables into verse during his imprisonment. Aristotle stated that Aesop made a good impression on the Samians4 through fables. Plutarch‘s5 legend follows that Aesop had come to Delphi on a diplomatic mission from King Croesus of Lydia where he insulted the Delphians and was sentenced to death. The Delphians pushed him off a cliff to end his life. Around the 13th century, a monk and translator, Maximus Planudes6, collected hundreds of fables and composed a detailed version of Aesop’s life. Following Planudes’ account, Bachet de Méziriac, a French, linguist, poet and classics scholar took great pains to detect and expose the follies and absurdities of Planudes’ Life of Aesop. In his book published in 1632, he theorized that the whole of the absurd fictions concerning this wise and amiable man were mostly invented. (Dodsley & Bachet, 1897) Though Planudes’ account of Aesop’s life was heavily bashed by Bachet de Méziriac and other scholars, his version had been circulated for centuries. Despite these publications, Aesop’s life continues to be mysterious and obscure; not a single copy of the “original Aesop” are publically known to exist today. Although his existence remains uncertain, numerous tales credited to him were gathered across the centuries and continue to this day. Aesop was deemed as the father of fables and is the most famous fabulist of today. (Snodgrass, 1998). 4. People from Samos, a Greek Island in the eastern Aegean Sea, south of Chios, north of Patmos and the Dodecanese, and off the coast of Asia Minor. 5 A Greek historian, biographer and essayist, known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia. 6 Maximus Planudes was a Greek monk, scholar, anthologist, translator, grammarian and theologian at Constantinople. 3.

(15) 1.2. Aesop’s Fables and ancient versions. More than 600 fables are attributed to Aesop in various collections throughout the history. Aesop’s Fables were first created to persuade, narrate, and argue. The fables started as an oral tradition of ancient Greek which placed oration with a much higher importance than writing and literature. For centuries, fables were verbally transmitted in speech from one generation to another. There was no written form of Aesop’s Fables until Demetrius of Phalerum complied the earliest known collection. Demetrius was a scholar at Great Library of Alexandria and a rhetorician. (Berti & Costa, 2009) He collected fables for orators as debate materials, however his collection has been long lost. The earliest-surviving version is by Phaedrus7 who compiled the fables in five books in the 1st century AD. His collection is in simple and terse Latin verse. Another known version is by Babrius around 2nd century AD whose collection contains more than 125 fables and is in Greek verse. The other collections include the Latin Avianus from fourth-fifth century AD. Nearly all the fables are to be found in Babrius. These are the most known versions of Aesop’s Fables in the ancient times. In this paper, the main source for Aesop’s Fables is from “Babrius and Phaedrus” fables translated by Ben Edwin Perry and published in 1965. This collection contains the Latin texts of Phaedrus and the Greek texts of Babrius both with facing English translation. This collection also contains valuable appendix listing all the Aesop’s Fables attested in Greek and/or in Latin.. 7. Phaedrus, like Aesop, was a freed slave. He claimed that fables were invented by slaves as an oblique medium of expression for those who could not speak openly. (Hamilton, 1991) Clayton’s research also points out that Aesop’s Fables are a metaphor for slavery. The hierarchy and power relations in the fables are analogous to those in the human world as it was in Greece at the time. (2008) 4.

(16) 1.3. Literature review. Aesop’s Fables were originally written and composed in Greek. From antiquity to the 21st century, they have been translated into many languages, published in various forms and utilized to meet various purposes. Aesop’s Fables have been studied by numerous scholars throughout the ages. However, only individual aspects of Aesop's Fables were analyzed by scholars, never was a holistic approach taken. Not much researches or studies discussed the transition of each major functional shift and their distinctive influences on Aesop’s Fables in modern times. It is important to address each function and how these functions were presented by others in order to get a better view of the thorough function shifts of Aesop’s Fables. Aesop’s Fables were first invented, or say, used as rhetorical devices. The first known collection of Aesop’s Fables were composed by Demetrius for the use of rhetoric for orators. He was the author of numerous treaties on politics, law, rhetoric, literary criticism, and other philosophical topics as well as other literary exercises including Aesop’s Fables and Anecdotes. (Gross & Walzer, 2008) Edward Clayton points out that Aristotle argued in Rhetoric that telling fables can be an effective method of arguing by example and is a useful rhetorical strategy in politics. (Clayton, 2008) When speaking of the importance of fables in Greece, scholars often consider them as a rhetorical means of persuasion. (Zafiropoulos, 2001) Fables were also used as exempla by people of the church to teach commoners proper conduct. Cosman and Jones delved into the life of Middle Ages from the perspective of Christians, Jews, and Muslims who inherited and inhabited the classical Roman Empire, which stretched from the British Isles. They pointed out that fables were not only educational but also entertaining during the medieval period. (Cosman & Jones, 2009) According to Salisbury’s research, it is known that collections of appropriate stories (arranged alphabetically) that could be used to yield moral lessons to the faithful were compiled in the 13th century. “Five kinds of stories were included in exemplum 5.

(17) collections: (1) stories of good and bad churchmen (these were by far the most numerous in most of the collection), (2) Biblical narratives, (3) historical incidents (including examples from saint’s lives), (4) fables (both classical and original), and (5) bestiary passages.” (Salisbury, 2012) This practice lasted for centuries. Nevertheless, Frederic C. Tubach (1962) and Gwenfair Walters Adams (2007) both pointed out that churches were ordered to stop using materials except biblical stories to preach because of the overly misuse of exempla. Medieval period was also a time when the church founded and maintained a great number of grammar schools. Some schools had already incorporated the study of fables into the school's curriculum. Fables were used when educating students because "they supported character development; they sharpened the critical faculty; and they aided in the understanding of the Holy Scripture.” (Springer, 2011) Grammar schools independent of the church began to emerge in the late medieval period. They were tied to the universities or local hospitals and the education was known as a liberal education. Latin, in the medieval period was used by both the Christian church and the grammar schools. Religious manuscripts and school curriculums were primarily written and taught in Latin. When the English elite rediscovered the importance and beauty of the classics, the Renaissance commenced. The classics, especially those written in Greek and Roman (Latin), became the core materials used by grammar schools. In addition, due to the invention and advancement of the printing press, printing quickly became more efficient (Saenger, 2006). Thanks to the advancing printing technique, more and more publications and books were circulated in the market for commoners to learn Latin or Greek on their own. This resulted in language learning becoming more affordable and available. In grammar schools, where Latin and Greek were practiced, various kinds of materials were used in the curriculum and Aesop’s Fables were among them. Interlinear translation into English from the Latin or Greek texts helped schoolboys build up their understanding 6.

(18) of the structure of the languages. The moral content of these stories were perfect for fostering healthy-minded young students. The use of Aesop’s Fables as language learning materials is decried by Foster Watson in The Old Grammar Schools:. Form III. To be employed about three-quarters of a year: 1. In reading four or six verses out of the Latin testament every morning. 2. In repeating syntaxes and accidence. 3. In Aesop’s Fables. 4. In Comenius’s Janua Linguarum. 5. In Batista Mantuan’s Eclogues and Helvicus’s Colloquies. 6. In the Assembly’s Latin Catechism─on Saturdays. 7. In translating every night two verses out of the Proverbs into Latin─and two out of the Latin testament into English. (Page. 103104). It was a time when grammar schools put emphasis on the classics. There were publications of Aesop’s Fables designed for grammar schools’ use to teach languages. “Aesop’s Fables had served as a textbook in grammar schools until the eighteenth century.” (Pollard, 1998, p60) Wolfgang Beutin and his fellow scholars pointed out in A History of German Literature: From the Beginnings to the Present Day that “fables were always a genre for adults, developing into a children’s genre only in the nineteenth century.” (Ehlert et al., 1993) However this paper argues that the development had already taken place much earlier than the 19th century. Well into the English Enlightenment8, the philosophy of education had changed. With the increasing interests in science and in scientific methods, the Enlightenment thinkers wanted a modernized educational system which played more of a role in the transmission of those ideas and. 8. According to Stanford Encyclopedia pf Philosophy, the Enlightenment is the period in the history of western thought and culture, stretching roughly from the mid-decades of the seventeenth century through the eighteenth century, characterized by dramatic revolutions in science, philosophy, society and politics. 7.

(19) ideals. John Locke, the great English philosopher, was among them. “He put emphasis on the dynamic side of a child’s life and advocated the moral education of children rather than a pedantic focus on the mere acquisition of facts.” (Locke, 2013) No doubt his philosophy of education marked the beginning of Aesop’s Fables being utilized as enlightened readings for children. Modern studies of Aesop’s Fables after the 20th century often focus on how characters of animals shape a child’s temperament or the nonhuman animal representations. Social themes that fables address in contemporary editions were also discussed by Donna Eder. (Cajete, Eder & Holyan, 2010) She argues that fables illustrate how open ended storytelling empowers youth by introducing them to a variety of meanings and lessons. Many fables reflect children’s own ethical dilemmas as well as social issues of justice and equality. Most of the studies discussed and analyzed the roles that Aesop’s Fables played or functioned within a limited time frame. Though some studies have traced back to Aesop’s Fables’ origin, yet it was for the purpose of background introduction only. This paper aspires to offer readers a continuum of Aesop’s Fables throughout history. Considering each function of Aesop’s Fables in history a distinctive dot, it aims at locating each dot and further connecting them, presenting readers with a clear line of functional shifts on a historical map. The connection of and the gap between each function will be explained and filled up. Meanwhile, using Aesop’s Fables as a source text, this thesis is going to present a fascinating showcase of how translations and functional shifts operate in relation to the people using them, throughout the ages. It demonstrates how translations enrich the implications of a source text as well as how a source text develops into a rich source of contextual implications and applications.. 8.

(20) Chapter Two: Rhetorical Materials and Exempla. Regardless if Aesop was a real person or not, fables attributed to him had long been part of the oral tradition in ancient Greek. An oral tradition is the manner in which information is passed from one generation to the next in the absence of writing or a recording medium. It is always a way to keep the history or culture of the people alive. Storytelling is also a form of oral tradition which inherits messages. It may take many forms: jokes, sayings, narrative poetry, songs, folktales, genealogies, and praise poetry. In this way, laws, prescriptions, and even historical elements are transmitted. Greek orators spoke, debated and illustrated verbally. It was crucial for any citizen who wanted to succeed in court, in politics, or in social life to learn the techniques of public speaking. Aesop’s Fables were first used to persuade and to reason. Starting life as an oral form, it took hundreds of years before anyone committed the fables to writing. It is not difficult to associate the use of Aesop’s Fables with rhetorical narratives. “Fables are short narratives to illustrate, to enact and finally to confirm an idea, some general observation or moral principle about human nature and experience.” (Boenig & Davis, 2000, p.85) Exemplum, in its broad sense, is as simple as an example that is used to make a point in an argument. However, in this paper, exemplum takes on a more narrow view which specifically refers to an anecdote that supports a moral. Exemplum was the most common form of preaching used by medieval English clergy/monks. Aesop’s Fables were just one of the many sources of exempla. People of the church worked with ancient manuscripts in Latin9 and thus had access to Aesop’s Fables. They utilized these fables and included them as materials for sermons. The transition from rhetorical. 9. Latin, in the medieval period was used by both the Christian church and grammar schools. Religious manuscripts and school curriculums were primarily written and taught in Latin. 9.

(21) devices to religious exempla will be addressed in section 2.2.. 2.1. Fables used as rhetorical materials. Demetrius’ one-volume work is the earliest written collection of prose fables known to us from antiquity; his collection has been lost, but it is presumed to have formed the basis of later fable collections. (Kurke, 2011) He collected fables for orators as rhetorical materials. There were several accounts in history where ancient philosophers resorted to fables in a debate or speech. “They exploited fables as rhetorical device and used it to persuade a public audience of some point of view.” (“Aesop’s Fables,” n.d.) A number of ancient sources attest the use of fables in speeches in courts and political debates (e.g. in deliberative speeches). Fables were used subordinately as illustrations in a larger context, whether of poetry as in Hesiod, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes, or in prose, as in Herodotus, Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle. (Perry, 1965) However there are only a limited amount of pages in this thesis, thus we will focus on the fables themselves. Since Demetrius’ fables were said to be translated into Latin by Phaedrus. And these two collections were brought together by Babrius and retranslated into Greek. The two ancient versions that we are going to examine are fables from Phaedrus and Babrius translated by Ben Perry. I have created a table describing all the fables listed in both Phaedrus and Babrius along with the fable number, story outline and other information. (See Appendix I) With this chart we are going to take a closer look at their form and the content in the hopes of getting a better understanding of why fables were composed and utilized as rhetorical devices.. 10.

(22) 2.1.1. Fable number and form. Phaedrus compiled all the fables into five books and each one varies in size. The first book contains 31 fables, the second 9, the third 19, the fourth 24 fables and the last book has 10 fables. Babrius compiled all the fables into one collection and it contains 143 fables. The fables we read nowadays are simplified and always have morals attached at the end. However the forms of ancient fables are different from what we know today. Each fable of Phaedrus begins with its title and often with a promythium. This is followed by the main body of the text and sometimes a gnomic sentence or an epimythium. There was no explicit “moral” attached at the end of the fable. Each fable of Babrius begins without a title but starts with the main body of the text. A few fables end with an epimythium. The promythium, of which we have spoken, is a brief statement concerning the application of a fable made by the author before he begins the narrative. As in “Phaedrus III 5: Success invites many to their ruin. The function of the promythium was to index the fable under the heading of a writer or speaker who would consult the fable-repertoire for the purpose of finding a fable that would illustrate an idea he wished to express effectively.” (XV. Ben Perry, 1965) Sometimes it serves as a summary of a fable. Promythia enable users to quickly find the most applicable fable for an argument. On the contrary, an epimythium is added after a fable intended as an explanation. It follows the story and stands outside the plot. Sometimes, the author would single out the point that he wanted to make or draw from the fable, too. (Christos Zafiropoulos.) Let’s see an example from Phaedrus Book I, fable 20:. “The Hungry Dogs” A foolish project is not only ineffective; it is also a voice that lures mortals to their ruin. 11.

(23) Some dogs saw a hide sunk in a river and, in order to get it out more easily and devour it, they set about drinking up the water. But they burst themselves and died before they could attain their object. This fable doesn’t have a moral at the end. Its promythium clearly pointed out the implication of the fable. Hence if anyone would like to use it as an illustration to warn others not to commit folly deeds. This fable is right on the spot. Now let’s take a look at fable 107 of Babrius:. “The Lion and the Mouse”. A lion caught a mouse and was about to eat him. The little house-bred thief, now close to death, poor creature, faintly muttering begged for life with words like these: “ ’Twere well for you to hunt down stags and horned bulls, and with their flesh make fat your belly. A mouse is not meal enough for you to taste with the edge of your lips. Come I pray you, spare me. Perhaps someday, though small, I shall repay this favour.” The beast laughed and let his suppliant live. But he himself ere long fell in with youthful lovers with the chase, was taken captive in their net, made helpless, and bound fast. The mouse ran forth unnoticed from his hole, and, gnawing the sturdy rope with his tiny teeth, set the lion free. By saving this in turn the lion’s life, he made a recompense well worth the gift of life that he’d received.. [The meaning of this fable is clear to men of good will: Spare the poor, and don’t hesitate to rely on them, considering that a mouse once freed a lion caught in trap.] 12.

(24) The epimythium indicates the implication of the fable directly and suggests that we should “spare the poor, and don’t hesitate to rely on them.” These two examples show us the functionality and application of fables. However, the practice of promythia was gradually abandoned or ignored and replaced by the presence of epimythia. In Phaedrus epimythia appear for the first time along with promythia with increasing frequency. “In the first book of Phaedrus, the proportion of promythia to epimythia is 25:4, but in the fifth book it is 2:7. Babrius, writing in the last quarter of the first century, has some epimythia but no promythia.” (XV. Ben Perry) The moral of fables we see nowadays are evolved from the use of epimythia and gradually became an inseparable feature of fables.. 2.1.2. “Some” special fables. People are familiar with Aesop’s fables in the 21st century. How about fables in their original form? Most of the fables are not far from the versions we can read today. Some fables seem to have enjoyed popularity for ages. Nevertheless, as I sorted through the fables of Phaedrus and Babrius, I discovered some fables that are “indecent and obscene” and some even contain “discrimination” against certain groups of people. I have selected fables that don’t seem to be “appropriate” from the point of view of modern times. The first fable is from Phaedrus book III, fable 3, titled “Aesop and the farmer.” Judging from the title we can already tell that it is not a story told by Aesop but others. The message it carries may seem legitimate, the story itself is nevertheless vulgar. The promythium of the fable reads: “one who has learned by experience is commonly believed to be surer prophet than a soothsayer, but the reason for this is not told; it will gain currency now for the first time, thanks to my fable.” And the story goes like this: “The ewes of a certain man who kept flocks gave birth to lambs with human heads. Being greatly alarmed at this prodigy and in deep dejection, he hastened 13.

(25) to consult the soothsayers. One of them replied that this thing had reference to the owner’s life, and that he must avert the danger by the sacrifice of a victim; another declared the meaning to be that his wife was an adulteress and his children spurious, but this omen could be dispelled at the cost of a larger sacrifice victim. Why say more? They had different opinions and increased the man’s anxiety by the addition of greater anxiety. Aesop happened to be standing by, an old man of keen discernment, who nature could never deceive; said he: “if you wish to take proper measure to avert this portent, farmer, give wives to your shepherds.”. It might take an innocent soul some time to comprehend the fable. However, the fable is obviously implying bestiality. The fable itself was to make a point yet its measure seems pretty indecent. The second fable is from Phaedrus book IV, fables 13. The promythium reads: “‘Nothing is more profitable to a man than to speak the truth.’ This is a maxim that should, of course, be approved by everyone; but sincerity is usually brought to its own destruction <in places where the current value of falsehood is greater than that of truth >.” As the fable is rather lengthy I will provide the reader only with a summary of its content. The story is about an ape who caught two men, one born deceptive and the other truthful. The ape made them tell him who he was and what his fellow apes were. The deceptive man told the ape that he was the King of the other apes and got rewarded. The other spoke the truth, saying that he was merely an ape, and was later torn to pieces. The epimythium reads: “This is a tale for wicked men who love deceit and malice, and who murder honesty and truth.” This fable reflects the cruel fact of the world that sometimes deceitfulness triumphs honesty. This “message” seems to encourage people that cheating can be forgivable and may be beneficial. 14.

(26) The next fable is from Phaedrus IV, fable 15 titled Prometheus. It is badly fragmented and only two lines remain and it reads: “<Then using the same materials he made, immediately after> fashioning her private parts, the woman’s tongue. From that circumstance the obscene relationship derives.” This fable is associated with the creation of man by Prometheus. Some believed that this fable implies oral sex (Knapp, 2011). Following fable 15, fable 16 is again about Prometheus. This time the fable engages homosexuality and how it came into being. The fable states that Prometheus was creating humans, putting their genitals on the bodies, and was invited to Bacchus’. After returning to his work and, in his drunken state, mistakenly places female’s parts on bodies of masculine sex and masculine parts on females. The fable ends with the sentence: “hence lust now gratifies itself with a perverted pleasure.” Here Phaedrus provides an etiological myth for the creation of individuals attracted to their own sex or, more specifically masculine women and effeminate males. It is deem as a mistake and perverted. “The pleasure (gaudium) is described as pravum (depraved), with connotations of something distorted, deformed, improper or bad.” (Johnson & Ryan, 2005, p.114) Babrius, fable 116 titled “A Domestic Triangle” has some description of unconventional sex, too. It was about a married woman who “fulfilled her desire completely” with a boy. Her husband, instead of being furious about it, made his wife persuade the boy to come to their house. Thereafter he, in turn, whenever the two were inclined to do anything, amused himself with the boy. The epimythium goes like “it is bad for anyone who let himself be imposed upon, when it lies within his power to avenge himself.” The implication of the fable is clear however the fable itself is pretty vulgar and suggestive. As the title reads, “A Domestic Triangle.” The fable indeed involves threesome and probably pederasty.. 15.

(27) The next fable is Babrius, fable 16, titled “The Disappointed Wolf.” This fables comes with no promythium or epimythium however it ends with a statement made by the main protagonist that reads: “How can you expect, when I put my trust in a woman?” It all begins with a rustic nurse who threatened her infant when it cried saying “be still, less I throw you to the wolf.” Of course she didn’t mean what she said. The implication of the fable underlines that women are not trust-worthy and clearly carries a certain stereotype. Another fable that discriminates women and misrepresents their nature is Babrius, fable 22, titled “The Middle-Aged Man with Two Mistresses.” The story is still included in some fables for children today; however the words “mistresses” are often replaced by “wives” and the content is edited as well. The original story, or rather, the Babrius version describes a man had two mistresses. One was younger than him and the other older. Whenever he made love to them, the old one plucked out his black hair and the young one plucked out his grey hair. This man ended up bald. The fable comes with an epimythium claiming that “how pitiable a man is who falls into the hands of women” and “women are like the sea; which smiles and lures men on to its speaking surface, then snuff them out.” Whoever first invented this fable must have been hurt badly by a woman so as to see women as such evil creatures. The interpretation of this fable had a tendency to disparage women while ignoring the foolishness of man.. Babrius, fable 56 titled “How the Arabs got to be Liars.” It is about a wagon filled with lies by the God Hermes, upon entering the country of the Arabs the wagon broke down and was stripped clean. This fables doesn’t have epimythia, the implication however is more than clear. The last sentence reads “That’s why the Arabs, as I’ve learned from personal experience, are liars and impostors; not a word of truth is on their tongue.” Obviously Babrius or whoever first wrote this fable hated Arabs and denounced them as liars. No matter if it was a stereotype from those times or if it was simply a personal 16.

(28) grudge against Arabs. When reading the fable, readers learned discrimination and racism. Another story that has something to do with discrimination is Babrius, fable 62, titled “Only A Half-Breed.” It was about a mule who aspired to race. He was first pumped thinking of his mother who was a horse. And then he felt ashamed thinking of his father who was an ass. This fable seems to imply one’s impurity of origin. The mule was made to feel inferior about himself. The horse may refer to the upper class while the ass/donkey may refer to a slave.. These topics touched on by the fables of Phaedrus and Babrius seems pretty sensitive and the wording was bold and straightforward. It is difficult to imagine a scenario where these fables are applied. However we know that fables were by no means “innocent”, “fun”, and “instructive” as they are today. We might consider these stories taboo or inappropriate, some even promote inappropriate behavior or stereotypes. However the intended audience of fables, at the time, were adults and “civilized” men. These fables were created to “illustrate” certain beliefs and arguments. Aristophanes presents heterosexuality and homosexuality as categories which are indeed both defined by nature (Cohen, 1994, p.190) Writers such as Herodotus, Plato, Xenophon, Athenaeus, and many others had also explored aspects of same-sex love. The society at the time was intensely patriarchal. What matters is the social status in a sexual relationship. Some fables may degrade woman and other groups of people. These fables were, nonetheless, considered “persuasive” and “compelling”, because of this they were found in the collections of orators. Though vulgar, obscene, biased or misleading, these fables were written and composed 2000 years ago. It is safe to say that a lot of wisdom has changed during that time. Fables depict the life and the conventions of ancient Greece while the author provides a personal insight/opinion on the fables content through the use of an epimythium. 17.

(29) 2.1.3. Ever-changing. Fables of Phaedrus and Babrius are about animals, humans, plants, minerals, deities, and inanimate objects. Some fables are still read by many today. Humanized animals are the biggest feature and distinguish fables from other tales and types of stories. Since animals don’t talk, fables always automatically have the potential to satirize human speech. Animals are often associated with distinct characters. Not only animals but plants and objects are endowed with life and a human voice. They speak like humans and act like humans. Babrius, fable 106 titled “Deeply Worried about the Future” is a fable depicting a lion who invited all sorts of animals to his den to enjoy a feast. An ape was in charge of handing out portions of food to the guests. A fox was worried by the accumulating number of animals coming to the den and share food with him. He expressed his concerns to the lion to which the lion replied “Blame the ape for this, not me.” Real animals don’t gather together for a feast. Let alone “complain” about the food. It is obvious that this fable is implying something and it is open for interpretation. Another example is from Phaedrus book I, fable 17. Titled “The Sheep, the Dog, and the Wolf”, this story is about a sheep who was falsely accused. Because the wolf deposed and certified the accusation, it was later found dead in a pit. This fable is about dishonesty and fraud and is accompanied by a promythia: “liars usually get punished for their evil work.” This time, animals not only talk but also act like people in court. The wolf was summoned as a witness and gave a false testimony. Phaedrus book IV, fable 14 is titled “The Rule of King Lion.” This fable has a promythia that reads: “where silence brings torment, the penalty for speaking out is equally hard.” A lion made himself king and confined himself to a slender diet along with others. He later found that he couldn’t change his nature. He tricked animals to smell his breathe and asked them how it smells. Regardless whether they said, “It smells” or, “It doesn’t smell,” he slaughtered them all. However an ape was smart enough to say that the smell of the 18.

(30) lion’s breath was just like cinnamon. The lion found no excuse to kill the ape so he pretended his was ill. He had physicians come to examine him and was suggested to eat something “that would stimulate” his appetite. The lion replied, “I never taste ape-meat” and so the ape with the flattering tongue was killed. The epimythia of the fable reads “the penalty is the same for the one who speaks and for him who does not speak truth.” Animals in this fable are just like humans. Some are deceiving and some are stubborn. However, it is clear that the lion, or say the ruler, seems to have absolute power over everything. Fables is also a means of criticizing specific behavior. This criticism may range from a simple complaint towards another individual to a severe condemnation about the ruler or government.. After examining the fables of Phaedrus and Babrius, we learn that fables are the perfect argument in disguise. Characters in fables serve as vehicles for orators to express their thoughts or ideological messages. These fables were used as rhetorical materials and reflect orators’ ideas of certain subjects. Fables were open to interpretation. As an oral tradition, fables were always changing and shifting. Sometimes, they were more useful in deliberation than true examples from the past. It is easier for an orator to invent or to adopt a fable than to find a true event that is similar to the situation that the orator refers to. (Christos, p.17) They were used in various literary and social contexts. No matter how these fables were intended when first written. We see animals carrying human traits and we learn things from their circumstances. Nevertheless, we are humans. We don’t always behave like those animals, plants, minerals, deities, or inanimate objects. There are similarities between these characters and humans. Luckily, fables are “told” just to illustrate and we have a chance to think and act independently and differently than animals. 19.

(31) 2.2. Fables used as exempla. Classical Greece gave birth to the notion of “Western” thought and culture. As we discussed earlier, classical antiquity was a time when Aesop’s Fables were used as rhetorical devices. The spread of Greek influence and language is also shown through the expansive empire of Alexander the Great. (Worldology.com, n.d.) Later the Roman Empire came to dominance and was divided into the Western and Eastern empires by 300 AD10. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, the "Western World" would enter the Dark Ages. Christianity was the only institution that preserved the basics of learning in this period, enshrined philosophy, the study of logic and a deep respect for all learning. We learn that during the Dark Ages11 and well into the early Middle Ages, churches preserved manuscripts. A lot of genres of ancient literature were only kept for monks and people of the clergy. However Aesop’s Fables continued to be presented in commoner’s life because they were used as materials for exempla. Throughout the Dark Ages, religion had become a crucial part of commoner’s life. “Churchmen increasingly believed that saving souls in their charge required more than presiding over the sacraments. People needed sermons to educate them and lead them to a proper life.” (Joyce. E. Salisbury, 2011, p.98). Materials from almost all available sources were taken by the church and transformed into brief narratives that could illustrate some morals. Preachers and churchmen increasingly used examples drawn from fables, bestiaries, and beast epics to illustrate their sermons. It was customary for a preacher to conclude his sermon by reciting from. 10. The history was intricate during this period. In short, during the 4th and 5th centuries, the Germanic peoples of northern Europe grew in strength and repeated attacks led to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. 11 This was from around 500 AD to 1000 AD(early Middle Ages) where western Europe underwent a long period of political fragmentation, external invasion, internal conflict and the collapse of long distance trade and economics and of infrastructure and education. 20.

(32) one to five moralized exempla. The first known person to have collected fables specifically for the use as exempla was Odo of Cheriton, a 13th-century English preacher and scholar. He left a collection of moralized fables and parables most industriously copied by later writers in this field. The value of Odo’s work consists of a large number of fables of which many were later incorporated by collectors and preachers. (Jacques & Crane, 1890). The growing preaching activities at the time promoted and spread the use of fables as exempla. Preaching, as an oral activity, depends on the vivid potentiality or promise of language for carrying its truth. Laura Gibbs points out, clearly, the background and associations which Aesop’s Fables have with the church.. Aesop’s fables were easy to assimilate into the European Christian tradition because of their resemblance to the parables of Jesus recorded in the Gospels. Aesop’s fables are short, simple stories that teach a moral lesson. Moreover, the adventures of Aesop’s talking animals provided some welcome humor, being filled with comic elements that are lacking in the parables of Jesus. As they rewrote the fables, the Christian monks would freely elaborate on the morals of the stories, adding in Bible verses in order to bring the fables more fully into the Christian tradition. Aesop’s fables became exemplum used by people of the church. Sometimes they would allegorize the fables, looking for Christian symbols, such as the treacherous serpent or the peaceful dove. They sometimes supplemented the traditional fables of Aesop inherited from ancient Greece and Rome with similar animal fables, drawing on local storytelling traditions, or making up stories of their own. These fable books were used as reference materials for preachers as they crafted their sermons, much as in the ancient 21.

(33) Greek world the first collections of Aesop’s fables had been created as a reference work for orators looking for anecdotes to use in a speech. (Gibbs, n.d.). Fables, rather than being linked to a single moral explanation or interpretation, were in essence “pointed stories capable of a wide variety of application.” Therefore, fables were especially useful to either orators or preachers. Now we know that fables were first invented as rhetorical materials with promythia as a guidance. And well into the Middle Ages, it became a primary source of exempla. The history of the fable collections has also revealed that the morals were not a necessary or standard accompaniment of the fables at their inception. “It was the collectors of fables in later antiquity and in the medieval period who developed the practice of adding to the fables a generalized moral lesson.” (Robert Boenig, p.85) Fables were first used in a political context and gradually evolved into materials used to promote and secure religious beliefs. These two functions of Aesop’s Fables may seem different, however the underlying purpose was the same. Aesop’s Fables were utilized as a tool to convince, a medium to illustrate and a way to persuade. However, exempla for their highly interpretive nature, had become more and more of a mirror of life that reflected personalized expressions which were abused by preachers to attract a larger audience. (Tubach) “Some considered fables lead astray of the souls of their own hearers.” (Adams, 2007) The over exaggerated use of fables slowly led to disingenuity and, as a result, the use of fables in sermons started to decline.. 2.3. Conclusion. There is a certain degree of similarity between rhetorical narratives and religious sermons. Both of them put emphasis on “illustration” and “persuasion.” Speakers want the audience to believe in something by telling them a story, a story that carries their 22.

(34) beliefs or ideas. The interpretation of fables is dynamic depending on how an orator/speaker utilizes it in a narrative. If used wisely, they are capable of a wide variety of application and can bring out strong effects. These effects could be shown in political debates, philosophical arguments, or religious speeches. Though the use of rhetoric and exempla were gradually out of practice, their influences are far-reaching. Owing to their origin and how they were first intended, fables became texts later to be applied by different people for various ends. Because of their essentially metaphoric nature, fables become such a convenient way to plant ideas in the mind. More and more translations of Aesop’s Fables began to emerge to meet various purposes. The mechanism behind fables may be simple but their impact was forever changing throughout history.. 23.

(35) Chapter Three: Language Learning Materials. Aesop’s Fables, were not only utilized by churches but also found in the classrooms of grammar schools as early Latin reading material for students. Before we embark on discussing the texts functionality as textbooks and as language learning materials, it is important to bear in mind the complex linguistics situation12 in the Middle Ages. From the Norman Conquest to the British Renaissance period, language practice was constantly changing. It was affected not only by the politics, but also by religion and academia. Apologues and fables by Aesop were used in grammar schools mainly for the purpose of learning vocabulary, grammar and syntax. By the late Middle Ages, some versions of “Aesop’s Fables” have also acquired long commentaries to ensure that pupils drew correct conclusions about each fable. Some fables would have occasional Christian references to a parallel piece of wisdom of the Bible. (Green, 2009) This, to some extent, can also explain why some later versions of Aesop’s Fables contain stories from the Bible that are falsely contributed to Aesop. Thanks to the need of language learning, fables were collected and translated into English. Prose versions in Latin were used to teach students to learn grammar and help them master the rules of literary exegesis. Many English philosophers and great authors received education from grammar schools and recalled learning Latin through Aesop’s Fables. For example, “Shakespeare had access to Greek and Latin classics in his small grammar school in the country town of Stratford-on-Avon.” (Werth, 2000). 12. There were three different languages used in the later medieval period, namely Middle English, Anglo-Norman (or French) and Latin. 24.

(36) Aesop’s Fables are mostly brief and succinct, featuring talking animals which easily catch learners’ attention. Using fables to begin a child’s literary education makes sense pedagogically. There are also various factors that contribute to the fact that Aesop’s Fables is ideal for language learning. First of all, the number of Aesop’s Fables was numerous and abundant. Phaedrus alone complied 93 fables and the most comprehensive collection, the Augustana has 231 fables. In other words, the source was abundant. These fables are written in Latin or Greek and provide teachers with numerous options in selecting proper stories for learners. Secondly, most of the fables, as mentioned above, feature animals as the protagonists. However, contrary to popular opinion, the protagonists in fables comprise gods, humans, plants and inanimate objects in addition to animals. Thus, it is much more interesting and varied than one would imagine. It has been mentioned many times by various “Aesop’s Fables” compilers that these fables are entertaining and amusing for learners. What’s more, learning Latin or Greek through fables also distinguishes itself in terms of the method. It doesn’t require advanced grammar structures and memorization of lists of unrelated vocabularies. Instead, fables help learners to memorize words interwoven in the context and to pick up repeated language patterns along with the story. Morals attached at the end of the fables is like the cherry on top. It is an effective instrument of intellectual indoctrination to reinforce or foster certain values.. Aesop’s Fables have been abundantly present in English since the late 16 century. The th. very first printed version of Aesop’s Fables was published in 1484 by William Caxton, an English merchant, diplomat, writer and printer. He was the first person that introduced printing press into England. This English-language copy features many woodcuts and has 268 pages. Later, more and more publications and copies of Aesop’s Fables began to spring up. Translated versions, especially for grammar schools’ use 25.

(37) also reprinted many times. There are also several versions that include prefaces with instructions to the schoolmasters. To further investigate the texts used by grammar schools and by those who were inspired to learn Latin and Greek, I have selected six publications for textual analysis and hope that after a series of analysis and discussion, the reader will have a better understanding of why Aesop’s Fables were chosen to become language learning materials.. 3.1. The selection. A quick look at the Early English Books Online (EEBO), one can find there are hundreds of books associated with Aesop’s Fables. As the number is too large and I would like to focus on a specific period in history, I chose editions that were published in the 17th century. There are a few reasons why I chose this period. First of all, it was not until the 16th century that the printing technique became more mature. Before the movable printing press was widely used, “books” were written by hand. They were known as manuscripts. Manuscripts were rare, precious and the making of them was laborious. Therefore books used to be luxury items. After William Caxton introduced the movable printing technique to England, the production of books changed rapidly. (Bl.uk, n.d.) After a century, books became cheaper and much more affordable. Compared to woodcut printing, movable printing was quicker and more durable. Books printed or published around the 16th and 17th centuries are mostly intact. It is possible to find decent copies with fonts and illustrations that are still clear and recognizable. The second reason is the language. The language of England used after 1470 up to 1650 is known as Early Modern English. It was the period when the transition of Middle English to Modern English took place. The Early Modern English still has usage from Middle English, yet for modern readers of English, we are generally able to understand texts written in this transitional phase. It is essential to me to understand every single 26.

(38) word and sentence in the texts analyzed in this thesis. Therefore, choosing 17th century’s publications is a rather personal choice in terms of the used language. Last but not the least, as we mentioned previously, grammar schools had long existed in the Anglo-Saxon times. The subjects studied in grammar schools had remained similar throughout the medieval period. However the advent of the Renaissance brought with it new concepts which in turn changed the curriculum of grammar schools. They began to teach Latin and Greek in order to equip students with the knowledge to read ancient manuscripts. The prime time of grammar schools was around the 16th and 17th century. As I wanted to study the grammar schools use of Aesop’s Fables, used as language learning materials, I primarily chose to study the 17th century publications.. After I made my decision regarding the time period, it was time to choose which books/copies were going to be analyzed. I had a several keywords in mind which were, of course, language, grammar schools, translation, and Aesop’s Fables. The first criteria for the selection was that it had to be a publication concerning Aesop’s Fables. The second was that it had to be a translation. The third was that it had to be in English which is my working language. Lastly, it had to be publication from the 17th century. After defining my search terms and a thorough search on EEBO, I found more than 20 publications. Among them there were books with the same title that were reprints or modified versions which were later ruled out. In the end I selected 7 books, published respectively in 1617, 1624, 1628, 1646, 1651, 1673, and 1700. The 1624 copy was not scanned properly when it was turned into a digital facsimile. Due to this, approximately one third of the text was found not to be legible.. 27.

(39) The 1628 copy was written entirely in black letter13 and was blurred and stained in several places. This also made textual analysis difficult. After ruling out the 1624 and the 1628 copies, I selected the other five copies, published in 1617, 1646, 1651, 1673 and 1700, for analysis. However, there are actually six copies for my textual analysis. The one that is not listed above is Aesop’s Fables published by Sir Rogers L’Estrange in 1692. This copy is well known by anyone who has studied Aesop’s Fables or Children’s literature. Hence, I included this edition of Aesop’s Fables as one of my research materials. The followings are a generic descriptions of my selection concerning their publication information and a table listing the contents of each copy. Please keep in mind that all spelling and punctuation concerning the text of each copy is as given in the original manuscript14.. Copies 1. Aesop, John B., (1617). Esop Eables Tranſlated Grammatically, and alſo in propriety of our English phrase; and euery way, in ſuch ſort as may bee most profitable for the Grammar ſchoole. Printed by H. L. for Thomas Man. 2. Aesop, Phaedrus, H. P., (1646). Æ sops fables, with the fables of Phaedrvs. Moralized, TRANSLATED VERBATIM, ACCORDING to the Latine. FOR THE VSE OF GRAMMAR SCHOOLES, AND FOR CHILDREN, That with the more delight, they may learne to reade the English Tongue. Printed by I.L. for Andrew Hebb.. 13. Also known as Gothic script, Gothic minuscule, or Textura, was a script used throughout Western Europe from approximately 1150 to well into the 17th century. 14 All the manuscripts can be found on EEBO by searching the same title and publication year. 28.