5.1 Gap1
立Ie interviewees indicated that schools usually import a substantial part of their knowledge from outside sources. Relationships with students' parents, communities and educational organs have considerable potential for providing knowledge Interviewees find it di伍 cult to gain a clear understanding of what knowledge is relevant for success,and how this knowledge should be distributed across the school and its staff A concise summary of the causes for gap I from the thematic analysis of the review is brieflydescribed 晶晶llows
I) fail to realize the school' s position;
2) lack ofawa自nesson what coreknowledge 也 atthe school possesses
Based on thesefindin咎， principalsand directors need to comprehend the school's internal,external environments and make a SWOT analysis to successfully adopt KM by enacting proper impl目nentation strategies. Schools need to adapt to external competitive demands(i.e. statewide assessment),andr臼pondingto a clientb品 e， such as local taxpayers who wish to see a yield on their inves阻lent， is crucial in a
陳建志、最主琪婷、謝秉蓉、林清河 AnInnovative FrameworkApplied to Elementary Schools 127
competitive global education market. Following concise issues may be a good reference to eliminate gap 1
1) useful communication. Staff in the school need to have useful communication, so that the principals and directors can have the latest and usefulin五onnationabout the enVIronment;
2) core orientation. The school needs to unders阻nd its orientation and compare itself with other schools. The knowledge map is useful for the distribution of knowledge concerning the organization's core capability. By doing so,school can find its diversity and strength with others
5.2 Gap2
Interviewees indicated that all a社empts to manage knowledge must start with an honest self-diagnosis. The results of this assessment can be checked by consultants, customers or stakeholders. The principals and directors must translate concretely their core knowledge into the KM implementation plan due to the non-standardization problem ofknowledge. To speed up access tothe 自quiredinfonnation,a standard code should be provided. A concise summary of the causes for gap2 is described as follows
I) inability by the school to describe or recognize its core knowledgerequired 宜。r
competItIveness;
2) KM goal is not relevant to the school's objectives,and there is di伍culty in transferring the necessary knowledge to the KM plan due to non-standardization;
3) difficulty in transferring the necessary knowledge to the KM plan
The principals and directors may be unable to recognize the core knowledge that the school needs,or even ifthey do,they may not be able to gain this knowledge due to an inability to describe what they need. Inconclusion,the level of gap2 will depend on how effectively the following activities are conducted
I) self-diagnosis. In 臼阻blishing a KM plan, it is crucial to diagnose and understand the plan's value and how suitable the plan is for building KM for the
school
2) goal setting. The ultimate goal of KM is to create value through knowledge usage. A strong emph品 ison KM in the organization's development plan indicates the importance of well-developed strategies for establishing a program to achieve the school's overall objective
3) knowledge standardization. The effective translation of 阻cit knowledge into explicit knowledge depends on the degree to which knowledge can be made standard or routine(D自ouza， 2003)
5.3 Gap3
The intervieweesrecognized 也 at schools must create the right staff management conditions and culture essential to enabling large-scale change initiatives. To gain full support from the principals and di自ctors， it is vital for knowledge managers to communicate to them the added value and necessity of KM implem叩tationefforts. A concise summary of the primary causes for gap3 is described as follows
I) lack of awa自ness， comprehension or willingness by the staff to share their knowledge. In other words,we can say that the school does not offer a friendly and effectively environment for the staff to share their knowledge;
2) lack of commitment to KM. If one of the staff feels that KM can not bring any benefit to them and has no willing to implement KM. Itcould lead to gap3
The results reveal that staff may not fully understand the value of the KM or are
concerned 也 at their personal value in the school might be negatively affected after sharing their knowledge. As a result they are unwilling to sha自 their knowledge Principals and directors must encourage teachers and staff to accept this new culture
Thl區，the size of gap3 in any school will determined by research and study course and sharing purpose,and the two following key issues should be carefully considered for bridging the gap
I) research and study co盯se. Schools will be aided in this process by a
陳建志、最主琪婷、謝秉蓉、林清河 AnInnovative FrameworkApplied to Elementary Schools 129
combination of factors,such as increased familiarity with technology,technological enhancements that ease ofuse oftechnology,and expanded interactions with others in both the private and public sector throughtechnologyσe!rides& Guin句， 2002);
2) sharing purpose. The school should establishes an a加osphere providing a :friendly and effective sharing environment. Ifthere is an absence oftotal management
comml阻lent，then KM cannot be implemented successful
5 .4 Gap4
Interviewees indicated that there is limited database usability for staff in the initial stages of KM. Besides this, sometimes the school neglects the importance of stakeholders,and this caused another obstacle of KM. In the internal environment of a school,students are the most important stakeholders. In the external environment,
sluden妞， pa自n妞， communities and educational organs play important roles (Suba,
1997)
Due to the tacit and dynamic nature of knowledge, it is di伍白白 to measure knowledge assets with existing educational systems. Many schools fail to evaluate the results ofKM to detennine whether or not it meets expectations. Therefore,a complete measurement system should be developed to evaluate whether the KM activities will enhance or decrease the school's effectiveness after implementation. Based on the
res叫tsofthe analysis,three key reasons for theOCCI盯enceof gap4are 品 follows
I) educationalindl區的 doesn'tprovide a benchmark for schools tole帥，
2) schools lack interactions with their stakeholders;
3) there is a failure to evaluate the res叫ts of KM to detennine whether or not it meets the expectations.Mo自over， existing educational systems are not appropriate for
me品uringknowledge assets
Several studies argue that a robust set ofme阻 cs that evaluates the value of the KM must be developedbefo自 the initial database is built for an effective knowledge repository (Tiwa凹， 2001). It can be inferred that gap4 will occ盯 ifschools either
unable to have suitable interaction with environment, or build a suitable knowledge repository and knowledge measurement system
I) environment interacting. School h品 essential int叮actions with their stakeholders;
2) benchmark.Learn how to become a benchmark in educationalindus仕y;
3) knowledge measurement system. A comprehensive measurement system needs to be developed in order to evaluate KM activities
5.5 Gap5
The intenriewees indicated that there was daily sharing of experiences within their group in which the staff behaved interdependently,and this can only be explained in tenus of group interactions. This suggests that some types of innovation and creativity cannot be achieved by individuals,but only by a team. Furthennore,school structures are not generally formed to suit the needs of KM. This analysis reveals the followi月 concise summary to describe the reasons why gapS occurs
I) different perceptions ofKM between thes阻ffdue to difference in position,role, andprofi臼 sionalknowledge;
2) the staff at different levels have distinct attitudes toward planning, responsibility,and authority
It is easy to see that there are gaps between the perception of the staff due to differences in position,role,and professional knowledge in an organization (Nonaka, 1991). Hence, the staff s perceptions of what type of knowledge they need will be different and will depend on their positions and roles. To reduce the probability of gap5
OCCI盯ing， briefly speaking, we have to avoid breakdowns in teamwork and staff's support
I) teamwork. In general, implem叩ting a KM system usually requires the combination ofrnany individuals' specialist knowledge. Ifthe school wants to achieve effective integration while knowledge 位ansfening， staff must have teamwork concept
陳建志、最主琪婷、謝秉蓉、林清河 AnInnovative FrameworkApplied to Elementary Schools 131
and a cross-learning idea;
2) staff's support. Staff's efforts can make the implementation ofKM smoothly
5.6 Gap6
The interviewees indicated that the KM activities could be facilitated by cooperation and collaboration between staff. If sharing the knowledge with others would impair benefit,efficient sharing of knowledge is usually impossible. Principals and directors should convey simple and definite me品略目 to all teachers and staff, demonstrating that sharing knowledge is a critical requirement in day-to-day jobs as well as for obtaining rewards. The following summarized issues may provide a good reference for eliminating gap 6
I) staff do not feel that theya扭曲couragedto share the existingknowled詐，
2) staff are not encouraged to organize communities
The power of knowledge for each staff comes from what one knows. So the knowledge workers usually do not want to share their intellectual 品 sets with each other. The interview reveals that gap6 will happen if a school cannot build a suitable knowledge communities and sharing system,which are described as follows
I) knowledge sharing. Staff can share their knowledge without self-interest;
2) knowledge communities. The organization should establish an atmosphere providing a:friendly and effective communication channel
As candidates for “something" to be managed, various components have been identified in the knowledge management gap literature. The most commonly mentioned components are as follows
First,the gap between the knowledge required to e址lance the effectiveness of a school as perceived by the principals and directors, and the knowledge actually
自qm自dto enhance its effectiveness (Ndlela et aI.,2001);
Second, the gap between the knowledge required to enhance a school's
effectiveness 品 perceivedby the principals and directors,and the plan to implement
KM(Rubenstein-Montano et aI.,2001);
Third,the gap between the plan to implem叩t KM and the plan itself,the gap between the knowledge obtained after implementing KM and the knowledge 自qm自d
to enhance a school's effectiveness (Campbell et aI., 1997);
Fourth, the gap between the knowledge required to enhance a school's effectiveness as p叮ceived by the principals and directors and that perceived by teachers and staff(Nonaka,1991; Paive,2003);
Finally, the gap between the knowledge required to enhance a school's effectiveness as perceived by staff and the knowledge actually obtained after implementing KM (Nonaka,1991)
We propose that there are six KM gaps. Those are the gaps about environment perception,the gap about KM plan design,the gap about the KM plan implementation, the gap about the school' s effectiveness after implementing KM, the gap about the
s阻宜'sposition and the gap about the school's staff(see Table 4) Table 4 Summary ofKM Gaps
Item Cause Propositions
l.F血 lure to realize 也e school's l.Useful communication. Staff in 也e school posItion need to have useful communication
Gap! 2.Lack of awareness on what core 2.Core orientation. The school needs to
knowledge 也eschool possesses understand its orientation and compare itsel to other schools
1. Inability by the school to describe l.Self-diagnosis. Be crucial to diagnose and or recognize its core knowledge know what the value will be
required for competitiveness 2.Goal setting. The ultimate goal ofK瓦'.1 is to 2.Difficulty m standardizing createvalue 吐1Youghknowledge usage
Gap2 knowledge 3.Knowledge stand缸dization Using
3.Difficulty 立1 tr由lsferring 吐1e infonnation technology to provide a
necessarγknowledge to the KM convenient repository to store knowledge pIau
陳建志、最主琪婷、謝秉蓉、林清河 AnInnovative FrameworkApplied to Elementary Schools 133
Table 4 Summary ofKM Gaps
Item Cause Propositions
1.I.ack of awaren帥， I.Research and study course. School provides comprehension or willingness by enough courses to teachers so 也at they can Gap3 staff toshare 也eirknowledge learn knowledge aboutK孔4
2.Lack of commitment toK瓦4 2.Sharing purpose School establishes an atmosphere providing a friendly 由ld
effectively environment
I.Educational indus甘y does not I.Environment interacting. School has essential provide a benchmark for schools mteractlOllsWI也出 eirstakeholders
to learn 2.Benchmark I.e缸n how to become a
Gap4 2 日 chaols lack interactions with benchrr>ark in educationalindus甘y
吐leirstakeholders 3.Knowledge measurement system. Developing 3.Knowledge assets lack t缸 gets to a system to evaluate KMactiviti自
n>easure
l.Staff in the school can not l.In general, implementing a KM system communicate and work toge出自 usually requir自由e combination of m血可
well individuals' specialist knowledge. If 也e
2.The staff members at different school wants to achieve effective integration GapS levels have distinct attitudes while knowledgetransferrin臣， staff must have
teamworkconcept 由lda cross-learning idea 2.Staffs support. Staffs efforts can make the
implementation ofKM smoothly
l.Staff do not feel 也at 也可缸e I.Knowledge sharing. Staff can share 也en
encouraged to share eXIstm巨 knowledgewi吐lOUtself-interest
Gap6 knowledge 2.Knowledge communities. The org由1日前的n
2.Staff are not encouraged to should establish an atmosphere providing a
org由1日ecommunItIes friendly and e立、ectIve commUll1CatlOn channel
The pmpose of this research was to propose a management-oriented concep叫al :framework todes叮ibethe problems that may occur in implementingKM. Our research includes theoretical and practical implications. The framework provides a fully holistic framework of the KM activities to illrrstrate the management gaps that might occ盯 when implementingKM. Furthennore,we collect the propositions from the principals and directors and connect these propositions with KM gaps to increase the possibility
when schools implement
KM
(Figure 2)ezlVIronmezltkHnItoewmlsetdmgge,
一戶otzzlr斗
knowledgeshar 血 g， research and studybenchmarl 玄，
measure>nent system knowledge commlUlitites course,shar血 gpurpose L
(心叫')-
effectiveness management gapknowledge一代:hers 叫
knowledge management planknowledge usefulcore orientationcomnnmicatio 缸，~\jprulClphalsowalldeddglerec個"')一
faculty's supportteanlwork,sseelstf-ttmmdlgadε，MbZIdClzoSIwahtllegodon
gaelFigure 2 KM Gaps and School Approaches
6. Conclusion
From the aspects of strategy, perception,planning and implementation, we have derived six management gaps in implem叩tingKM. After interviews with principals and directors, a clear pic叫re was obtained. We identified the major theoretical cons仕uctsand their relevant problems associated with these six KM gaps.Through the conclusion,the model can be continued. The results reveal that
6.1
From the Strategic AspectTo reduce gap! and gap4,the principals and directors should address the school's strength,weakness,opportunities,and threats,and then develop a suitable KM strategy
Furth叮more， they should be equipped with information about the KM activities and school effectiveness
6.2
From the perception aspectTo reduce gap2 and gap5, the critical task of the principals and directors is to
陳建志、最主琪婷、謝秉蓉、林清河 AnInnovative FrameworkApplied to Elementary Schools 135
identi
fY
the co自 knowledge 自quired 恥 maintain a competitive advantage. Principals, directors,teachers,and staff worktogeth叮 fora common goal,thus,the staffc扭曲surea successful implementation ofKM.Therefo間，a school should providesuitable 自search andr自 ources to the sta
ff,
and use infonnation technology to provide a cony叩1個trepository to standardize and store knowledge. By doing so,the staff will realize 也e
benefit ofKM,and will the make an effort to support theimplem祖祖tionofKM
6.3 From the planning aspect
The action plan should include a schedule,the people involved and the resources required,although it is di伍 cult to transfer the necessary knowledge to the KM plan due to non-standardization. Members' orientation toward KM,including the awareness of the importance and benefits of KM and infonnation technology skills for KM process,should be completely communicated. Then,gap2 and gap3 can be reduced Knowledge-oriented staff 品sessments can also fail if they are not linked closely to existing incentive systems. The schools should take steps to build the trust of knowledge owners by associating knowledge sharing with pay and incentives