This chapter covers the summary of the analyses results, conclusions of the research, study implications, research limitations and future research suggestions.
Summary of the Analyses Results
According to the results of the study, as Table 5.1., H1 was partially supported while H2, H3 and H4 were not supported either in 2005 or 2015. First, it is worth noting that although not all FWAs had a significantly positive impact on employees’ job satisfaction, the findings of the study indicated that employees’ job satisfaction can be enhanced by providing flexible work schedule and personal leave allowances. Second, it cannot be proved that flexible work arrangements have a positive effect on occupational commitment, since H2 was rejected in this study. The rejection of H3 shows that there were no significant differences in the relationships between flexible work arrangements and job satisfaction between males and females. In other words, both men and women expressed a similar level of job satisfaction when accepting FWA.
For H4, the moderating effect of gender in the relationship between flexible work arrangements and occupational commitment was partially supported: men and women showed significant different levels of occupational commitment when engaged in flexible work arrangements.
Generally, females improved commitment more than males when they received FWA.
Table 5.1.
The Results of the Proposed Hypotheses
Results
Hypotheses 2005 2015
H1. Flexible work arrangements make a positive effect on employees’ job satisfaction.
Partially Supported
Partially Supported H1-1. Flexible workhour makes a positive effect on employees’
job satisfaction.
Partially Supported
Partially Supported H1-2. Flexible schedule makes a positive effect on employees’
job satisfaction.
Partially
Supported Supported H1-3. Allowance for personal leave makes a positive effect on
employees’ job satisfaction. Supported Supported
H2. Flexible work arrangements make a positive effect on
employees’ occupational commitment. Rejected Rejected
H2-1. Flexible workhour makes a positive effect on occupational
commitment. Rejected Rejected
H2-2. Flexible schedule makes a positive effect on occupational
commitment. Rejected Rejected
H2-3. Allowance for personal leave makes a positive effect on
occupational commitment. Rejected Rejected
H3. Females present more job satisfaction than males after
accessing flexible work arrangements. Rejected Rejected
H4. Females present more occupational commitment than males
after accessing flexible work arrangements. Rejected Partially Supported
Conclusions Database Comparisons
The sample was taken from the 2005 and the 2015 databases and comprised people with similar characteristics. The results of a t-test analysis of the differences between the groups and gender warrant discussion. Since the mean scores of three dimensions of FWA presented no
significant difference, it can be noted that men and women reported similar flexible working arrangements in 2005 and 2015. In terms of this result, it is speculated that in 2005, men had more authority in asking for work flexibility but that men and women have equal results in accessing work flexibility in the current work situation. For the dependent variable, in 2015 results, the mean of the item OC I (job change difficulty) showed that there was a significant difference between men and women, with men reporting greater commitment than women.
With reference to the OC I question: “How difficult or easy do you think it would be for you to find a job at least as good as your current one?”, the researcher speculated that men might have more social responsibilities and expectations than women, so they tend to be more committed to their job when facing the risk of unemployment.
Flexible Work Arrangements and Job Satisfaction
The confirmation of H1 shows that FWA has a positive effect on job satisfaction which confirms Yaghi’s (2016) research that the more flexibility in the workplace, the higher the individual’s job satisfaction. However, not every FWA structure produces significant results.
Rather than flexible workhours, Taiwanese employees may prefer to have personal control over their work and daily schedule. Workers who are able to organize their work day and manage their daily routine show greater job satisfaction and the willingness to work as part of a team, which has a positive influence on the atmosphere and interpersonal relationships in the workplace. These results are consistent with previous studies showing that people value harmony and that the Chinese culture is relationship orientated (Anell & Hatmann, 2007).
Hence, when the company implements FWA effectively, employees tend to show more trust in and respect of others and greater satisfaction.
The findings that flexible workhours do not have a comprehensive and strong impact on job satisfaction may be due to government regulations regarding employees’ work conditions.
Taiwan’s labor laws, which require employees to work at least eight hours a day, limit the
employer’s options regarding flexible workhours and most full-time employees in Taiwan have fixed hours (according to respondents’ reports). Further, the expectation of long work hours and an office-based mindset could be part of the Taiwanese culture (Lu et al., 2008). Therefore, flexible workhours may not have any substantial effect on the job satisfaction of Taiwan’s employees. However, employees who are offered flexible workhours may well feel more appreciation of the organization, and ultimately affect their job satisfaction.
Flexible Work Arrangements and Occupational Commitment
The researcher found that the effect of FWA on OC is apparently weaker than that of JS, as H2 confirmed. In 2005, FWA had no impact on OC but in 2015, flexible schedule had a slightly positive effect on one dimension of OC that was consistent with the previous study that autonomy in deciding work schedule improves Taiwanese workers’ commitment (Lu et al., 2008). However, most of results of OC were not significant, which did not be line with previous confirmation that FWA affect employees’ commitment in an positive way (Choo et al., 2016).
A possible reason for this may be that the respondents’ subjective understanding of the meaning of the OC item varied and therefore that FWA did not have a positive impact on OC. According to the OC III (job security) question: “To what extent, if at all, do you worry about the possibility of losing your job?”, respondents who answered “I don’t worry at all” or “I worry a great deal” might both present high commitment to their jobs. People who answered: “I don’t worry at all”, might be satisfied with their job, be committed and show loyalty to the organization. On the other hand, the people who answered: “I worry a great deal”, cannot risk losing their job. With their job being their priority, they would be highly committed to their work and show great loyalty. Hence, interviewees’ responses influenced the direct impact of FWA on OC. And the other reasons may be that the OC items from TSCS did not fully represent OC and explain the relationship with FWA, which could be the subject of further investigations.
The Moderating Effect of Gender
The moderating effect of gender, as H3, was rejected – gender was not a contributing factor in the relationship between FWA and JS. However, in the relationship between FWA and OC, gender presented the differential outcomes of OC. According the results, gender showed the preferences of FWA and produced various reactions which accord with past confirmation that the degree of demand for FWA varies by gender, and women are more likely than men to value and benefit from work flexibility (Hill et al., 2008). Whereas, the results of allowance for personal leave also correspond with the implication that Taiwanese workers prefer personal control and produce positive outcomes. However, it’s worth noting that the moderating effect might have a negative effect on OC by flexible workhours, according to the results of hierarchical regression analyses. This means that it has a negative impact on employees by reducing their OC and is in lined with the previous implication that flexible worktime policy might not be a priority for Taiwanese workers.
Implications of this Study
Society’s growing demand for a balance between work and personal life, means that workplace flexibility has become an important consideration for workers and organizations, not only in the West but also in Asia. Studies in the West had proven that work flexibility can have a positive effect on employees’ job satisfaction (Hill et al., 2001; Saltzstein et al., 2001;
Scandura & Lankau, 1997). However, because the culture of the Asian workplace is different from that of the West, it remains to be seen whether work flexibility will have the same impact on Asian workers as it does in those in the West. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore whether work flexibility would have a significantly positive effect on Taiwanese employees’ job satisfaction and commitment. The research offers implications from national samples and the 2005 and 2015 databases.
The Division of Job Satisfaction
In many Western studies exploring the relationship between the research variables, JS is regarded as an independent global variable (Hill et al., 2001; Saltzstein et al., 2001; Scandura
& Lankau, 1997). In this study, and different from previous research, JS was divided into three parts, relationships, occupation, and organization, and each relationship with FWA was tested individually. Hence, the effective impact of FWA on JS can be given precisely and help the researcher to clearly and specifically explain the relationship between variables.
Work Flexibility in Taiwan
The results, which are significant, show that employees who have either a flexible schedule or allowance for personal leave are more satisfied with their workplace relationships, job and organization than those with flexible workhours. Overall, the findings of FWA for 2005 and 2015 were similar, as were the responses from interviewees in the two years. Hence, the outcomes from the two databases were derived in a similar way. However, we cannot confirm that work flexibility has been widely and comprehensively implemented in Taiwan’s workplace, because most of workers reported that they had certain limits in implementing flexible schedule and personal leave arrangements, and the implementation of FWA in 2015 were worse than 2005 by interviewees’ responses. The concept of work flexibility is well implemented in the Western countries with strong individualism and advanced human resource management.
However, in Asia countries where collectivism is strong, the concept of taking personal priority over work is contradictory (Kim & Ryu, 2017). However, with generation and workplace value changed, work flexibility is a trend of modern human resource management, which remains to be discussed.
Occupational Commitment and Gender
Gender was a moderator in the present study. According to the findings, although gender was not a significant moderator in the relationships between FWA and JS, it did have some influence between FWA and OC. By accessing work flexibility, men and women presented different impact on OC. Overall, females value FWA more and enhance their commitment through work flexibility. In 2005 and 2015, the proportion of dual earning family among respondents was 40.8 percent and 37.7 percent, respectively. Compared with men, women are more likely to face work-life conflict with Chinese traditional views and expectations (Cheung
& Wong, 2013). Hence, the relevant policies of work flexibility help to benefit females workers and improve their commitment. Further research in the differences between men and women on different social trends and workplace issues will be valuable.
In conclusion, the implications of this study are that as in the West, FWA can have a positive impact on the Asian workplace and specifically, in Taiwan. Given that the subject of the work-life balance has been topical for some time, the results of this study offer insight into workplace flexibility in Taiwan which will encourage decision makers to make appropriate decisions
Limitations of the Research
While there are advantages to the unusual use of nationwide probability samples and high-quality data collected in related research, there are certain limitations to the present study.
First, due to the wide range of workplace issues and items involved in the initial survey, the conclusion of causality cannot be generalized. There may be factors that were not included in this study that would influence relationships among variables. For instance, JS has often been the subject of different workplace studies and is considered an outcome of various work or organization-related variables. It cannot be confirmed that JS is entirely produced by FWA.
In addition, the initial questionnaire contains various factors and variables, and respondents’
answers may be influenced by other questions, leading to the different results.
Second, the present study was based on the analysis of secondary data with all the data coming from surveys conducted in 2005 and 2015. Given the rapid changes in the social structure and business models, it is uncertain whether the results adequately reflect the current state of Taiwan’s workplace.
Last, the TSCS committee recommended the composition of the questions in the survey and offered suggestions, so the reliability and validity of the measurement depended entirely on the assessment of the committee. For example, it is normal that well-established and theory-based multi-items measurements are adopted to test the variables; in the present study, each dimension of every variable was examined by single-item measures, and only three items in total represented a variable that might affect and impede the results. Hence, discussion is needed to establish whether these TSCS items can represent the variables individually and contribute to the substantial effects.
Suggestions for Future Research
Despite these limitations, this study offers an excellent opportunity to explore the current situation in Taiwan’s workplace and endorse the relationship between FWA and JS, as well as relationship between FWA and OC. Several suggestions can be made for future research.
First, the research can be extended to other variables, such as leadership or job involvement. Moreover, the sample group can be more specific, such as various occupations and industries, organization size, education levels and childcare situation. Especially, having children or not is critical factor for work flexibility implementation. And, longitudinal studies are also needed to determine the impact over a period of time and to observe the dynamics in the workplace.
Second, since FWA did not have a direct impact on OC, it would be worth examining the relationship between JS and OC to explore whether the impact of work flexibility on employee satisfaction would affect employees’ commitment to the organization or their occupation.
Third, the subject of gender is always relevant and it would be worth exploring the needs of men and women require varying degrees of flexibility at work. It would also be interesting to find out the different preference from men and women, and the impact on their attitude to the organization.
Finally, TSCS is valuable national database that researchers can use to investigate social issues and explore the social change. In the “Work Orientation” questionnaire, there are other sections on various issues that would be worth discussing.
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