Relationships among Flexible Work Arrangements and Employees Satisfaction and Occupational Commitment: A Study of Employees in Taiwan

全文

(1)Relationships among Flexible Work Arrangements and Employees Satisfaction and Occupational Commitment: A Study of Employees in Taiwan. by Wu, Yu-Jou. A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: Vera, Wei-Wen Chang, Ph. D.. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan December, 2019.

(2)

(3) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Finishing the thesis was an important milestone in my life. In the journey, I received great support from many individuals who have guided and assisted me. First, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Wei-Wen Chang for her continuous support and patience in my research. In the period, without her guidance and engagement of my thesis, I could not overcome the difficulties and find the right solution to solve the problem. Her expertise and experience have given me the great support for my thesis. In addition, I would like Dr. Lu and Dr. Lee for providing their knowledge and expertise for completing my thesis at the best. Secondly, I would like to thank all the professors and staff in IHRD for precious knowledge and assistance during the period. Without their help, I could not go through the process and arrive at the destination. Also, I would like to thank all of my friends I have met in IHRD. With their company and sharing, I am not alone on my journey. Thank you for being my friends. Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents and family members for their constant support and encouragement in my study and life. Thank you for being here..

(4)

(5) ABSTRACT This study explored the relationship between flexible work arrangements (FWA) and employees’ job satisfaction (JS) and occupational commitment (OC) with the moderated effect of gender. It also compared the results from former data to explore the trend differences in Taiwan workplaces. With the change of social structure and generations, mass media and policies has advocated pushing the appeal of the FWA. FWA is designed for the benefit of employees, which is an effective tool to help workers coordinate multiple domains of their lives and alleviate work-life conflicts (Dickens, 2006). Relevant research has confirmed that FWA can improve employee performance, intention, and well-being. With regard to workplace trends, existed research has indicated that younger generations with less commitment present more independence, greater awareness of work-life balance and work flexibility. The researcher used questions from the theme of “Work Orientation” in Taiwan Social Change Survey (TSCS), which is a formal nationwide survey in Taiwan conducted in 2015, to examine those hypotheses in the present study. Participants included Taiwanese male and female workers among various ages, who claimed to be employed with a formal job. In this study, FWA had positive impact on JS, but not existed on OC. Gender did not present the moderating effect among the variables, indicating that males and females reported the similar level of JS and OC after obtaining FWA. The implementations of FWA in the workplace in 2005 and 2015 did not present large discrepancy.. Keywords: flexible work arrangements, job satisfaction, occupational commitment, generational difference, TSCS. I.

(6) II.

(7) TABLE OF CONTENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... I TABLE OF CONTENT ............................................................................................... III LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... V LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... VII CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 1. Background of the Study .............................................................................................. 1 Problem Statement ....................................................................................................... 3 Purposes of the Study ................................................................................................... 6 Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 6 Significance of the Study.............................................................................................. 7 Definition of Key Terms .............................................................................................. 7. CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................. 9. Job Satisfaction ............................................................................................................ 9 Occupational Commitment ......................................................................................... 12 Flexible Work Arrangements ..................................................................................... 16 Flexibility Work Arrangements and Job Satisfaction .................................................. 20 Flexible Work Arrangements and Occupational Commitment .................................... 21 Flexible Work Arrangements, Job satisfaction, Occupational Commitment and Gender ................................................................................................................................... 22. CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODS ............................................................. 25. Research Framework .................................................................................................. 25 Research Hypotheses.................................................................................................. 26 Research Design ......................................................................................................... 26 III.

(8) Research Sample ........................................................................................................ 27 Research Instrument ................................................................................................... 28 Instrument Validity .................................................................................................... 31 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 32 Research Procedure .................................................................................................... 33. CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS ............................. 35. Descriptive Statistics .................................................................................................. 35 Correlation Analysis................................................................................................... 39 Hypotheses Testing .................................................................................................... 43 Group Differences in Gender...................................................................................... 48 The Moderating Effect of Gender ............................................................................... 50 Results Discussions .................................................................................................... 57. CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS ..................................... 61. Summary of the Analyses Results .............................................................................. 61 Conclusions................................................................................................................ 62 Implications of this Study........................................................................................... 65 Limitations of the Research ........................................................................................ 67 Suggestions for Future Research ................................................................................ 68. REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 71 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................... 83. IV.

(9) LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1.. Dimensions of Motivation Factors and Hygiene Factors ................................. 12. Table 3.1.. Research Hypotheses ...................................................................................... 26. Table 4.1.. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample of TSCS 2005 & 2015 ................ 36. Table 4.2.. Descriptive Statistics of Flexible Work Arrangements .................................... 37. Table 4.3.. Descriptive Statistics of Jos Satisfaction ......................................................... 38. Table 4.4.. Descriptive Statistics of Occupational Commitment ....................................... 39. Table 4.5.. Correlations among the Variables for TSCS 2015 (N = 749)........................... 41. Table 4.6.. Correlations among the Variables for TSCS 2005 (N = 823)........................... 42. Table 4.7.. Linear Regression Analyses for Main Effect of Flexible Workhours and Job Satisfaction .................................................................................................... 44. Table 4.8.. Linear Regression Analyses for Main Effect of Flexible Schedule on Job Satisfaction .................................................................................................... 45. Table 4.9.. Linear Regression Analyses for Main Effect of Allowance for Personal Leave on Job Satisfaction ............................................................................................. 46. Table 4.10.. Linear Regression Analyses for Main Effect of Flexible Workhours on Occupational Commitment ............................................................................ 47. Table 4.11.. Linear Regression Analyses for Main Effect of Flexible Schedule on Occupational Commitment ............................................................................ 47. Table 4.12.. Linear Regression Analyses for Main Effect of Allowance for Personal Leave on Occupational Commitment ....................................................................... 48. Table 4.13.. Gender Difference for Data 2015 .................................................................. 49. Table 4.14.. Gender Difference for Data 2005 .................................................................. 50. V.

(10) Table 4.15.. Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship between Flexible Work Arrangements and Job Satisfaction ...................................................................................................................... 51. Table 4.16.. Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship between Flexible Work Arrangements and Occupational Commitment.................................................................................................. 52. Table 4.17.. Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Moderating Effect of Gender on the relationship between Flexible Workhours and OC I (Job Change Difficulty) by Data 2015 (N = 749) ...................................................................................... 54. Table 4.18.. Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Moderating Effect of Gender on the relationship between Flexible Workhours and OC II (Job Change Possibility) by Data 2015 (N = 749) ...................................................................................... 55. Table 4.19.. Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Moderating Effect of Gender on the relationship between Allowance for Personal Leave and OC I (Job Change Difficulty) by Data 2015 (N = 749)................................................................ 56. Table 4.20.. Summary of Testing Effect Between Independent Variables and Dependent Variables ....................................................................................................... 60. Table 4.21.. Summary of Moderating Effect of Gender Between Independent Variables and Dependent Variables ..................................................................................... 60. Table 5.1.. The Results of the Proposed Hypotheses ......................................................... 62. VI.

(11) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1.. Research framework...................................................................................... 25. Figure 3.2.. Research procedure ....................................................................................... 34. Figure 4.1.. Moderating effect of gender in the relationship between flexible workhours and OC I (job change difficulty)........................................................................... 54. Figure 4.2.. Moderating effect of gender in the relationship between flexible workhours and OC II (job change possibility)........................................................................ 55. Figure 4.3.. Moderating effect of gender in the relationship between allowance for personal leave and OC I (job change difficulty) ........................................................... 56. VII.

(12) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter gives the aims of the research as well as the background to and motivation for the study. Definition of key terms, the statement of the problem, the significance of the research, and the research questions are presented. Finally, the limitations of the research are indicated.. Background of the Study Over the past few years, employees have been faced with increasing demands in the workplace and the impact of this on their private lives. This has been caused by globalization, technological advances, as well as workplace, generational and demographic changes (Beauregard & Henry, 2009; De Kort, 2016; Gregory & Milner, 2009; Kinnunen, Rantanen, Mauno, & Peeters, 2014; Society for Human Resource Management [SHRM], 2008). Attitudes to work have changed and people want a balance between their work and their private lives. Work-life balance is defined as an employee's perception that the various areas of their life, personal time, family commitments and work, are supported and integrated with minimal conflict between the roles (Clark, 2000). To achieve harmony in all areas of life and the resultant physical and mental health, those who find it difficult to balance work and their family and social responsibilities need new working models (Brough, O'Driscoll, & Kalliath, 2005). If the three areas are not in balance (leading to the perception of work-life conflict), the employee will experience tension (Carlson, Kacmar, & Williams, 2000), increased stress, a lack of commitment, and feelings of dissatisfaction with work and life in general. Because employees’ well-being is a vital factor in human resource management, practitioners and academics need to pay serious attention to the policies in place for work-life balance (Kim & Ryu, 2017). These policies are designed to help employees reconcile their work and personal. 1.

(13) lives and decrease role conflict in both areas (Fels, 2004; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Lapierre et al. (2008) showed that the employees in an organization that has a culture of encouraging work-life balance and policies in place to support this, will have lower levels of work-life conflict. Such policies are positively correlated with multiple facets of satisfaction with work, family and life in general among employees. Some research has attempted to distinguish worklife-balance policies from “family-friendly” policies and link work and family issues to broader management approaches to managing employees’ quality of life (Still & Strang, 2003). With the awareness of the importance of work-life balance, policymakers and employers should investigate and apply various policies and strategies to alleviate employees’ role conflicts and help them achieve a balance between their work and private lives (Soo, Park, & Zippay, 2011). Research into this area has offered several types of programs that can be executed effectively, such as flexible working and leave arrangements and child/dependent care support (Beauregard & Henry, 2009; Estes & Michael, 2005). Flexible working arrangements (FWA) can offer employers more options to adjust the size and structure of their staff (Draca & Green, 2004) and provide employees with more flexibility in their work and personal schedules, a winwin solution for both employees and organizations. In most European countries, more than half of the companies use flexible working hours, while in Western companies in general, FWA has become an accepted familiar and formal working option for employees with. Currently, more than 80% of companies offering employ flexible working hours. In most European countries, more than half of companies also use flexible working hours (Central News Agency [CNA], 2004). It is noted that in the last five years, about 40% more companies in the U.S. have started offering flexible work options than five years ago. With the changes in technological and work patterns changes, FWAs are no longer merely a trend, but are a vital consideration issue for companies. As the generation of employees known as “baby boomers” begin retiring and Generation. 2.

(14) Y employees (also known as millennials) become the main labor force (Lim, 2014), organizations will need to adjust their management style according to the demands and needs of the different generations. Compared to the baby boomers, organizations are reportedly finding that with the younger generation there is a lower work commitment, a higher turnover of staff and demands for more work autonomy and flexibility (Choo, Desa, & Asaari, 2016; Gratoon, 2013; Lim, 2014; Lyons, 2011). Several studies have noted a positive correlation between FWA and advantages for the organization, including employees’ job satisfaction and occupational commitment. Organizations that permit FWA are likely to see an increase in employees’ engagement, commitment and loyalty and a decrease in absenteeism and turnover intention. Employees who work in an organization with FWA are likely to have increased job satisfaction and a decrease in work-life conflicts and job stress (Anell & Hatmann, 2007; Behson, 2005; McNamara, PittCatsouphes, Brown, & Matz-Costa, 2012; Walters, 2016). Consequently, more and more organizations have adopted FWA as an essential strategy to attract and retain a high-quality, dedicated, and efficient workforce (Carlson, Grzywacz, & Kacmar, 2010).. Problem Statement The concept of FWA has neither been widely accepted and applied in Asia nor are there many studies on FWA in Asia compared with Western countries (Chow & Chew, 2006). Until Taiwan's economy boom, the issue of work and life was not taken seriously because Taiwanese workers were presumed to be more susceptible to stress than their Western counterparts. In Taiwan, long working days are normal and Taiwanese people work for longer hours on average than those in Western countries or Japan. This may well have a negative impact on job performance, role satisfaction and the work-life interface (Lu, 2011). In Asia, the number of dual-earner families has been increasing with concomitant requests. 3.

(15) for flexible working hours; those experiencing work-life conflicts are unable to work as effectively as they could. Researchers have indicated that women are more likely to be stressed by work-life imbalances than men (Jang, Park, & Zippay, 2011) because they are expected to take responsibility for the housework and taking care of children (This applies particularly in Chinese communities) (Cheung & Wong, 2013). The fertility rate in Asia has been declining over the years and Taiwan is experiencing one of the steepest drops in its fertility rates. This is leading to a rapid and ongoing demographic shift with more and more women entering the workplace and the population aging. With the transformation of social and family structures, employees’ difficulties in balancing work and family is bound to increase significantly; this applies particularly to women who have greater family commitments (Chen, Brown, Bowers, & Chang, 2015). However, it is not just women who would like flexible working hours; young people also value flexibility and in their choice of career, they prefer companies that offer a high degree of work autonomy. In recent years there have been numerous studies exploring the different generations’ perspectives on the perceived value of their work and their attitude to work. In view of previous research in Taiwan’s workplace (showing that Generation Y employees value a balance between work and personal life and work flexibility (Yeh & Liu, 2014), FWA can be an effective strategy for attracting and retaining young workers. Organizational support can promote and implement FWA smoothly, and FWA will produce positive outcomes such as commitment to the organization and job satisfaction. FWA is an essential resource that supports employees in their work. The “Job Demand Resource model” indicates that the availability of job resources can help employees meet the demands of their job and improve their performance. Accordingly, FWA is a feasible and practical way for Taiwanese employees to produce positive performances. Based on the above, the researcher was interested in determining whether FWA would. 4.

(16) have positive organizational outcomes such as job satisfaction and occupational commitment among Taiwanese employees and whether there are differences between males and females. Most studies on work-life balance issues or FWA have been based on Western samples; relatively little research has been done in Asia and especially Taiwan. This study focuses on Taiwanese workers’ experiences and perception of FWA, using a database from a nationwide survey: the 2015 Taiwan Social Change Survey (TSCS). The purpose of this survey, which is conducted regularly, is to detect changes in Taiwanese society and their real value lies in the fact that substantial analysis of social change in Taiwan can be made. The theme of “Work Orientation”, which includes related aspects of Taiwan’s workplace, was conducted in 2005 and 2015. To understand workplace trends in Taiwan, this researcher will refer to the research of Lu (2008) and compare the results of the 2005 TSCS database and will explore and analyze differences between the data of 2005 and 2015. Lu (2008) examined the relationship between work flexibility, work-family conflict and organizational outcomes (job satisfaction and organizational commitment) by using the 2005 TSCS database. In the first stage of the research, the existence of the relationship among variables was established and it was shown that the theoretical framework offered by Western work/family research can be used in the Chinese context. It was also established that work flexibility could provide continuing protection for organizational outcomes. Hence, the present research extends the previous academic research to examine the differences in workplace trends over the decades.. 5.

(17) Purposes of the Study 1.. To examine the relationship between flexible work arrangements and dependent variables (job satisfaction and occupational commitment).. 2.. To examine the differences between males and females in the relationship between flexible work arrangements and dependent variables (job satisfaction and occupational commitment).. 3.. To examine the differences of data between 2015 and 2005 in the relationships of flexible work arrangements with job satisfaction and occupational commitment.. Research Questions Based on the research purpose, the questions were aroused as below: 1.. Do flexible work arrangements make a significant positive effect on job satisfaction?. 2.. Do flexible work arrangements make a significant positive effect on occupational commitment?. 3.. Does gender have a significant moderating effect for relationship between flexible work arrangements and job satisfaction?. 4.. Does gender have a significant moderating effect for the relationship between flexible work arrangements and occupational commitment?. 5.. Are there any significant differences in workplaces trend between data between 2015 and 2005 in the relationship of flexibility work arrangements with job satisfaction and occupational commitment?. 6.

(18) Significance of the Study To date, it has been difficult to find studies on FWA in Taiwan, and few studies have systematically examined the effects of FWA on job satisfaction and occupational commitment among Taiwanese employees. In the future, FWA must be mainstreamed in the workplace to maximize labor-force participation. By exploring the relationship between FWA and job satisfaction and the relationship between FWA and occupational commitment in Taiwan’s workplace, this study will examine employees’ perceptions of organizational resource for FWA from a nationwide sample. This study contributes to the literature by enhancing the understanding of the relationship between FWA and organizational outcomes, as well as the moderating role of gender in the relationships in context of Eastern culture. Further, this study can contribute to the literature by providing the result of the differences in workplace trends through longitudinal observation and comparison of nationwide surveys. Finally, it is hoped that this study can provide relevant information in the field of human resources or organizations and provide support for future flexible work arrangements or policies.. Definition of Key Terms In this study, the researcher used data from a national survey in Taiwan were used. All of questions are selected from the Questionnaire II “Work Orientation” in the 2015 Taiwan Social Change Survey (TSCS), Round 7, Year 1.. Flexible Work Arrangements In the present study, flexible work arrangement refers to “any policy, practice, whether formal or informal, which allow employees to vary when, where, and how they work” (Maxwell, Rankine, Bell, & MacVicar, 2007, p. 138). The researcher measured flexible work arrangements as an independent variable by using questions from the section- Job and Worker. 7.

(19) Flexibility in TSCS Questionnaire II “Work Orientation”. There was a total of 3 dimensions selected in this section: flexible workhours, flexible schedule and allowance for personal leave.. Job Satisfaction In the present study, job satisfaction refers to the degree to which people assessed how much they like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their jobs from different facets (Spector, 1997). There are various facets that affect an individual’s satisfaction, including appreciation, communication, coworkers, fringe benefits, job conditions, nature of the work, organization, personal growth, policies and procedures, promotion opportunities, recognition, security, and supervision (Spector, 1997). In this study, the researcher measured job satisfaction as a dependent variable by using questions from the section- Job Satisfaction in TSCS Questionnaire II “Work Orientation”. There was a total of 3 dimensions selected in this section: relations, main job and organization.. Occupational Commitment The concept of occupational commitment is defined by Blau (1985) and is one of the components of work commitment. Occupational commitment is defined as an individual’s desire to remain in occupation after an assessment of viable alternatives. The researcher measured occupational commitment as a moderator through using questions from the sectionOccupational Commitment in TSCS Questionnaire II “Work Orientation”. There was a total of 3 dimension selected in this section: job change difficulty, job change possibility and job security.. 8.

(20) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter reviews the available literature related to the research topic and questions. First, the chapter presents the definitions of each variable; second, it introduces the different theories linked to each variable and, lastly, it explores the relationship among variables and discusses the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between flexible work arrangements and job satisfaction, and the relationship between flexible work arrangements and occupational commitment.. Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction refers to the general attitude of an employee towards his organization (Chen & Fulmer, 2017), and is an important indicator of employee affection, and a powerful predictor of an employee’s commitment to employment. Hence, obtaining job satisfaction is very important for most people (Bücker, Furrer, Poutsma, & Buyens, 2014). However, job satisfaction may be subject to fluctuating loyalty declining even faster than it has been established. Organizations and supervisors need to pay attention to factors that may influence employee attitudes. Job satisfaction can extend to become part of life satisfaction. The nature of a workplace affects how employees feel about their job. If an individual values the job as an important part of his/her life, then his/her job satisfaction will influence his/her overall life satisfaction (Singh & Sinha, 2013). The definition of job satisfaction can be interpreted differently according to different research purposes. Years ago, job satisfaction was thought as a kind of subjective feeling toward a job from individuals, but there was no explanation as to how the sense was transferred. Hoppock (1935) defined it as “any combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances that cause a person truthfully to say I am satisfied with my job”. 9.

(21) (p. 47). Vroom (1964) defined job satisfaction as “affective orientations on the part of individuals toward work roles which they are presently occupying” (p.99). However, the most common definition in organizational research is Locke’s (1976), who defines job satisfaction as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state derived from the appraisal of one's work or work experiences” (p. 1304). In general, job satisfaction refers to an individual's overall emotional orientation towards the current job role (Kalleberg, 1977), and is a measure of how satisfied employees are with their jobs, whether they like their jobs or the personal aspects or aspects of their jobs, such as the nature of their work or their supervision. In the development of organizational psychology, researchers kept examining the factors that can influence and trigger job satisfaction. Taber and Alliger (1995) explained that “how much employees enjoyed individual tasks within their role, their scores were moderately correlated to satisfaction with the work itself, and associated (although weakly) with global job satisfaction” (p. 101). Spector (1997) stated that job satisfaction was “the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their jobs” (p. 2). From a global perspective, he thought job satisfaction could be illustrated in different ways, such as by the feelings and emotions of an employee based on work experiences or work relationships, and listed common factors that could influence job satisfaction. This was conducive to exploring and studying employees' attitudes towards various sides (aspects) through a one-aspect approach (Sellgren, Ekvall, & Tomson, 2008). Statt (2004) defined job satisfaction as “the degree to which employees were satisfied with the rewards they received from their work, especially regarding hypostatic motivation” (p. 78). Kaliski’s (2007) definition was that it was the critical factor in achieving recognition, income, promotion, and other goals that bring a sense of accomplishment” (p. 446).. Related Theories of Job Satisfaction There is a strong overlap between theories of job satisfaction and theories of human. 10.

(22) motivation. The most universal and salient theories in this area include Locke’s Range of Affect Theory and Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory. These theories are described and discussed below. Locke’s range of affect theory. Locke’s Range of Affect Theory is discussed as the most extensive model of job satisfaction. The main precondition of this theory is that satisfaction is predicated by the difference between a person's expectation of the job and what he has in the job (Locke, 1976). According to this theory, when a person's expectations are met or not met, the degree to which he attaches importance to a certain aspect of his work (e.g., work autonomy) can moderate his satisfaction or dissatisfaction with his work. If a person values one aspect of their job, his satisfaction will be more affected than when he doesn’t. The satisfaction will be influenced positively when his expectations are met, and negatively when they are not. Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory. Studies of job satisfaction often draw on Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory. The theory, also known as the two-factor theory or dual-factor theory, attempts to elaborate the relationship between satisfaction and motivation in the workplace that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are derived from various motivation and hygiene factors (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). According to the theory, motivation factors are intrinsic to the job, such as challenging or stimulating work, recognition, a sense of personal achievement, opportunity for advancement, and personal growth. All such factors affect job satisfaction. Extrinsic factors to the job, such as wages and benefits, company policies and administration, good interpersonal relations, and social status, will induce dissatisfaction (Holmberg, Caro, & Sobis, 2017). In order to reduce dissatisfaction among employees, hygiene factors in the work environment must be evaluated, as they are the causes of dissatisfaction. Eradicating dissatisfaction, however, is one of the tasks of the two-factor theory; the other one is to increase satisfaction. Hence, motivation factors play an essential role in motivating employee performance and providing them with satisfaction (Singh & Sinha,. 11.

(23) 2013). This explanation of the diversity in job satisfaction can be characterized as a “structural” one, since worker attitudes are seen as a direct, one-to-one reflection of workplace structure. This theory has a great practical value, because it provides employers with ways to improve workers’ satisfaction by manipulating the characteristics of jobs they often control (Kalleberg, 1977). Table 2.1. Dimensions of Motivation Factors and Hygiene Factors Motivation factors. Hygiene factors. •. Responsibilities. •. Challenging or stimulating work. •. Work autonomy. •. Sense of personal achievements and growth. •. Opportunity for advancements. •. Salaries and benefits. •. Organization policy and administration. •. Interpersonal relationships. •. Work status. •. Working conditions. Note. Adapted from “Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory,” by F. Herzberg, B. Mausner and B. B. Snyderman. 1959, The Motivation to Work (2nd ed.), p. 102. Copyright by Oxford, England. John Wiley & Sons.. Occupational Commitment Besides job satisfaction, this researcher explores the relationship between FWA and occupational commitment. Findings from related studies indicate that occupational. 12.

(24) commitment extends from organizational commitment and usually comes with job satisfaction. In the field of organizational behavior or industrial and organizational psychology, occupational commitment refers to the psychological attachment of employees to their jobs. Mindful of dynamic changes and a reassessment of the workplace and the work mindset, many of studies have been based on finding ways to improve worker’s feelings about their work in order to make them more committed to their careers and organizations. Notably, scholars have indicated that employee commitment may shift from an organization to one’s occupation (Johnson, 1996; Meyer & Allen, 1997; Yousaf, Sanders, & Abbas, 2015). However, younger generations tend to present themselves as less loyal than the Baby Boomers, who tended to stay with a company longer (Choo et al., 2016). Generation Y, growing up in the era with advanced technology and Internet, has meant that their social skills and emotional expressions are shaped by different lifestyles. This growing background leads to a diminished sense of commitment and loyalty to their organizations and their occupations (Lyons, 2011). The biggest challenge for Taiwan organizations today is to be able to inspire and employees and to maintain their commitment and loyalty. Work/organizational commitment is multifaceted and has been conceptualized and measured in various ways by researchers and practitioners. Scholars have conducted extensive research on organizational commitment in the field of management, and the early work developed differing definitions of commitment. Generally, organizational commitment refers that an individual’s emotional and functional orientation to the organization in which he or she works (Elizur & Koslowsky, 2001). After long-term exploration and research, modern studies show more complex and multi-dimensional characteristics of organizational commitment. According to Salancik (1977), organizational commitment is “a psychological state, which explains the relationship between employees and the organization, and the meaning of the decision to stay in the organization” (p. 22). Mowday, Steers, & Porter (1979) defined. 13.

(25) organizational commitment as “a strong belief and acceptance of the organization’s goals and values, with a willingness to put considerable efforts into representing the organization, and a strong desire to stay in the organization.” Additionally, occupational commitment is conceptualized as one of the components of work commitment, and refers to an individual’s identification to his/her occupation and his/her desire to keep it after an assessment of viable alternatives (Blau, 1985; Kanste, 2011).. Meyer and Allen Model of Organizational Commitment Meyer and Allen’s (1991) theory is the most widespread theory about organizational commitment. They defined commitment as “a force to connect an individual to the behavior or relevance of one or more goals” (p. 67), and assumed the structure of organizational commitment as consisting of three discrete components: affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. The concept of the triple component model is that when an employee is committed to an organization, these three different mindsets will construct an outcome. In addition, it has been noted that “the three ways a person commits to the organization should be viewed as components rather than types, because a person can use these three ways to develop commitments of the same type but with varying degrees of commitment” (Meyer & Allen, 1997, p. 13). It means that these three components do not have the nature of exclusivities, that is, they do not overlap and can coexist at the same time (Fang & Jaw, 2014). Affective commitment. Affective commitment means that an employee shows a positive emotional attachment to an organization and this represents the “desire” component of organizational commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1991). An employee has affective commitment because he/she “wants to.” More specifically, when employees have a strong affective commitment, they tend to identify with the vision and goals of the organization and want to be. 14.

(26) a part of that organization. Continuance commitment. Continuance commitment refers to an employee’s recognition of the costs associated with leaving the job. This represents the “need” component to stay with their jobs (Meyer & Allen, 1991). An employee has continuance commitment because he/she discerns that the cost or risk of leaving the organization is high. The fear of losing something valuable from the job could be the loss of financial benefits (good salary, employee benefits), social benefits (friendly colleagues), or professional benefits (desired jobpositions, accumulated work experiences) (Fang & Jaw, 2014). However, employees must also consider the availability of alternatives, when they feel that the favorable costs are not good enough to keep them in the company. Normative commitment. Normative commitment refers to an employee committing to an organization and staying in that organization due to a sense of obligation. This is the last component of organizational commitment. An employee has normative commitment because he/she “ought to.” These feelings may come from personal pressure before and after joining the organization. A normative commitment could be triggered by many factors, such as an extensive amount of training organization invested in the employee, a financial bonus or advance received from the organization (Fang & Jaw, 2014). Normative commitment is higher in those organizations that value loyalty and systematically engage employees through rewards, incentives, and other strategies. Employees’ normative commitment can be improved through visible examples of employers’ commitment to employee welfare and benefits. The greater the employee’s commitment, the more significant is his/her contribution to the organization and the greater is his/her job satisfaction. Based on a literature review, researchers have shown that organizational commitment reduces absenteeism and turnover, effectively improves employee job performance, job satisfaction, and organizational success (Currivan, 2000; Kim, 2005; Kim & Ryu, 2017;. 15.

(27) Schmidt, 2007). Other factors, such as stress, empowerment, job insecurity and employability, and distribution of leadership, have also been proven to be associated with employees’ sense of commitment. Much of the literature on the relationship between work commitment and job satisfaction shows that employees develop a stronger commitment to their job if they are satisfied. Research on work attitudes in the US and Japan by Kalleberg and Lincoin (1990) showed that the correlation between organizational commitment and job satisfaction of Japanese workers was 0.73, while the correlation among Americans was higher at 0.81. Another study by Dirani and Kuchinke (2011) has also shown that there is a strong correlation between work commitment and job satisfaction, claiming that job satisfaction could be seen as a reliable predictor of commitment. In order to achieve greater organizational commitment among employees, employers must assist their employees to value and increase their organizational involvement. The more valued employees feel they are as part of the organization, the more likely they are to work with their employers (Choo et al., 2016). In particular, we all know that generation Y employees have less commitment and loyalty to their employers, but they dominate the labor force currently, so human resource managers should make more effort to retain a good quality workforce (Gratton, 2013). This study focuses on one aspect of occupational commitment, that is, an individual’s affective commitment to work. When an individual has a strong occupational commitment, it is harder for him/her to change jobs.. Flexible Work Arrangements The development of the economy and the progress of society have inevitably caused changes to the business work model. When working hours become longer and longer, leading to increased workloads, job insecurity, personal stress and the rising cost of living (financial stress), people begin to perceive the balance between work and life (Lu, 2011). As a solution. 16.

(28) to reduce work-life conflicts and improve work-life balance, FWA have become increasingly popular around the world (Joiner & Bakalis, 2006). The purpose of FWA aims to support workers in reconciling work with other aspects of their life (Dickens, 2006). According to the Families and Work Institute (FWI), workers expect to gain more flexibility in the workplace, and the requests for FWA increase each year (Galinsky & Backon, 2009). There is a recent FWI report from Galinsky and Backon (2009) indicating that approximately 86% of employees think that workplace flexibility is important in so far as it assists them in managing work and life demands. There is a growing recognition that FWA may support the extension of working lives (Atkinson & Sandiford, 2015; Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development [CIPD], 2012; Loretto, Vickerstaff, & White, 2009). FWA can provide helpful assistance to a wide range of employees, not only those who have family responsibilities, such as caring for children or the elderly, but also those who have other non-work concerns, such as continuing education or participation in volunteer activities (Chen & Fulmer, 2017; Greenberg & Landry, 2011). FWA enable workers to determine the best way to allocate time, attention, and energy resources to various domains (Allen et al., 2012). As a consequence, employees with FWA can have personal control over the choice of working hours or places, thus able to balance work and nonwork responsibilities. While there is no specific definition, the idea of FWA generally refers to giving employees work autonomy and personal control over their work, allowing them to decide when, where, or how much work they do (Glass & Estes, 1997; Kelly & Moen, 2007; Yaghi, 2016). More specifically, FWA imply work options that permit flexibility, including “where” to complete work (often referred to as telecommuting or flexplace) and/or “when” to complete work (often referred to as scheduling flexibility or flextime) (Rau & Hyland, 2002). Recently, telecommuting, flextime, and flexplace, have been implemented to help employees achieve a work-life balance (Lim & Teo, 2000). Employees with FWA may work irregular hours, have. 17.

(29) different schedule, or work in various locations (Greenberg & Landry, 2011).. Situation in Asia Dikkers, Geurts, den Dulk, Peper, & Kompier (2004) found that the pre-existing workplace culture may influence actual contact with, or use of FWA, because FWA is usually psychological in nature and informal in execution, and this may have nothing in common with official policies (Behson, 2005; Kirby & Krone, 2002; Timms et al., 2014). However, Asian companies may benefit from the implementation of FWA, as the culture in the region is relationship-oriented, and employees may be attracted to companies that have a caring organizational culture (Anell & Hartmann, 2007). The provision of autonomy and allowances in determining working hours and taking brief leaves for personal and family affairs can provide workers with a sense of autonomy and can also be interpreted as organizational or supervisory support, especially for Chinese workers who are generally unable to obtain work autonomy and personal control (Lu, Wu, & Cooper, 1999; Lu, Kao, Chang, Wu, & Cooper, 2008). If a company implements FWA as a job resource, in order to help employees coordinate their work and life obligations, then the company may be regarded as a caring and supportive employer, and this caring can increase the retention of employees and advertise the fact that a company trusts and respects its employees (Anell & Hatmann, 2007).. Job Demands-Resources Model (JD-R Model) The perspective that FWA effectively alleviates the conflict between individual work and life is based on the resource theory (Allen, Johnson, Kiburz, & Shockley, 2012; Edwards & Rothbard, 2000; Goode, 1960). Flexibility is considered as a valuable resource that allows employees to perceive personal control and autonomy at work. As a job resource, FWA represent an organizational strategy that benefit employees, and avoid work-life conflicts caused by the exhaustion of resources by employees in order to cope with multiple roles (Allen, 2001; Brough et al., 2005).. 18.

(30) Initially, the JD-R model is a theoretical framework that specifies the interaction between requirements/demands and resources, and predicts organizational outcomes (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001). It assumes that a healthy balance between positive (resource) and negative (demand) job characteristics impacts positively on employees’ health and well-being (Schaufeli, Taris, & Bakker, 2006). Two different underlying psychological processes play essential roles in the development of job-related strain and motivation: one is the health impairment process, and the other is the motivational process (Albrecht & Anglim, 2017). The JD-R theory applies to various occupational environments under consideration compared to other theories, regardless of the specific needs and resources involved, because job demands and job resources constitute an overall model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014; Demerouti & Bakker, 2011). Job demand. Job demands are defined as “those physical, social, or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort and are therefore associated with certain physiological and psychological costs” (Demerouti et al., 2001, p. 508). When employees receive heavy work demands, physical and psychological costs, such as fatigue and irritability, may result. According to meta-analytic results, job demands, such as work overload, role conflict, role ambiguity, and emotional demands, can have a negative impact on employees' health, well-being and performance (Alarcon, 2011; Albrecht & Anglim, 2017; Nahrgang, Morgeson, & Hofmann, 2011). However, employees can recover from the extra effort and costs associated with mobilizing job resources through taking breaks, changing tasks, engaging in less demanding activities, or gaining work flexibility (Schaufeli et al., 2006). Job resource. Job resources are defined as “those physical, social or organizational aspects of a job, such as feedback, social support, development opportunities, that can reduce job demands, help employees achieve work goals, and stimulate personal learning and development” (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007, p. 312). Personal resources are defined as the. 19.

(31) positive self-evaluations related to resilience and refer to an individual’s sense of his/her ability to successfully control and influence his/her environment (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). When employees perceive themselves with sufficient resources and with work autonomy, they will produce positive personal and organizational outcomes, such as good work performance, job satisfaction, work engagement and work commitment (Bakker, Demerouti, & Sanz-Vergel, 2014; Knight, Patterson, & Dawson, 2016). However, employees with limited resources manifest adverse outcomes, such as burnout, stress and depression, as well as turnover, sickness absence, poor job performance and declining job satisfaction (Bakker et al., 2014; Knight et al., 2016). This is the reason why scholars advocated an increase in employee resources to enhance work input. Based on the JD-R theory, the theoretical linkage between FWA and job involvement lies in how employees have the discretion to complete their work (Behson, 2005) and how employees achieve personal control and autonomy mechanisms (Timms et al., 2014). Their situation is working well when they can naturally balance work demands and mental health by receiving sufficient job resources from the work environment. Consequently, for this study, the JD-R model could be used as a suitable theoretical background to support the relationship between flexible work arrangements and organizational outcomes.. Flexibility Work Arrangements and Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction affects both employees and employers, mostly in terms of career success, facilitation of work and family scheduling, turnover intentions, engagement, absenteeism, and job quality. Flexibility in the workplace can improve job satisfaction (Yaghi, 2016). A metaanalysis of flextime studies revealed that the implementation of FWA had a positive and effective impact on employee satisfaction, commitment, productivity, retention, and decreased absenteeism (Baltes, Briggs, Huff, Wright, & Neuman, 1999; Greenberg & Landry, 2011;. 20.

(32) Kossek & Ozeki, 1998; Osterman, 1995; Scandura & Lankau, 1997; Stavrou, Parry, & Anderson, 2015). Many previous studies have also proven that FWA is positively correlated with job satisfaction (Hill, Hawkins, Ferris, & Weitzman, 2001; Saltzstein, Ting, & Saltzstein, 2001; Scandura & Lankau, 1997) and work-life balance (Jang, 2009; Valcour, 2007), respectively. Furthermore, FWA has been proven to provide significant psychological benefits for the well-being of employees. Findings have shown that employees, who had work flexibility, were more involved, healthier and less stressed than those who had no flexibility (Fenwick & Tausig, 200; Galinsky & Backon, 2009; Galinsky, Bond, & Hill, 2004; Moen, Kelly, Tranby, & Huang, 2008). Employees’ health and well-being improved as they exercised flexibility and control over their work arrangement. Therefore, based on the literature review, the following hypotheses are proposed in this study: Hypothesis 1: Flexible work arrangements make a positive effect on employees’ job satisfaction.. Flexible Work Arrangements and Occupational Commitment Numerous previous studies have confirmed how FWA affects employee commitment to an organization (Allen et al., 2012; Beauregard & Henry, 2009; Choo et al., 2016; Kim & Ryu, 2017; Scandura & Lankau, 1997; Walters, 2016). More researchers from Asian countries have started to explore the implementation of FWA in local companies and the relationship between FWA and organizational commitment, thus making the academic research more connected to the current situation in Asian workplaces. Anell & Hatmann (2007) gave an overview of the implementation of FWA in Asia, and revealed how FWA benefits employees’ loyalty to their organizations. Research in Malaysia revealed the positive effect of FWA in affecting organizational commitment (Chooet al., 2016). Kim and Ryu (2017), conducting their study in the Philippines, showed the positive impact of work-life balance policies on organizational. 21.

(33) commitment. A nationwide study in Taiwan conducted by Lu et al. (2008) confirmed that autonomy in deciding work schedule positively correlated with the increase of organizational commitment among Taiwanese employees. Therefore, based on the literature review, the following hypotheses are proposed in this study: Hypothesis 2: Flexible work arrangements make a positive effect on employees’ occupational commitment.. Flexible Work Arrangements, Job satisfaction, Occupational Commitment and Gender The Equality and Human Rights Commission (2008) revealed that the number of women joining the workforce had been steadily increasing over the past 40 years, thus leading to the rise of dual-income couples and negating the traditional male breadwinner model (Harkness, 2008). Over the past decade, Taiwan’s market has developed a healthy economy with sufficient capital and intensive technology. With the progress in gender equality, more women are joining the workforce. Regardless of their marital status, their participation and contribution to the workforce are significant and cannot be ignored (Chien & Yi, 2002). In Taiwan, more than 40% of married women have a full-time job, mainly because of financial needs (Executive Yuan, 2005; Lu et al., 2008). However, females are more likely than males to encounter conflicts and imbalances with work and family , since they undertake the majority of the household duties, while still having to participate in the workplace (Crompton, Brockmann, & Lyonette, 2005). In the view of traditional social roles, women are expected to play the role of caring for children and family responsibilities, especially in the Chinese community and culture (Cheung & Wong, 2013; Chien & Yi, 2002; Lu et al., 2008; Schwartz, 1992). However, in contrast, other researchers have pointed out that women are less likely than men to take time off from work to meet family expectations (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991). Furthermore, additional research has. 22.

(34) found that a husband’s negative attitude toward a working wife is more likely to prevent his wife from continuing to work rather than having a baby (Chuang & Lee, 2003). As a result, women face more obstacles in their career development than do men, especially in terms of promotion and leadership, and when they adopt leadership roles they can expect negative impacts in their private fields, including relationship problems and insufficient family time (Fritz & Van Knippenberg, 2017). This situation makes the issue of work-life balance an urgent one in Taiwan’s work environment. Since female employees are more likely to feel limited and frustrated in their ability to control available time, they may perceive the work environment as threatening, further reducing their interest in making emotional connections with the organization (Cheung & Wong, 2013). If organizations show their support of female workers by providing flexible working options as job resources, the females tend to develop an emotional attachment with their organizations, thus improving their job satisfaction and increasing their commitment. Researchers have pointed out that when employees view FWA as an important source of resources, they are more likely to identify with their organization (Cheung & Wong, 2013; Wright & Hobfoll, 2004). Women who accept FWA, perceive they have greater control over their job, and this leads to lower turnover intentions, fewer work-family conflicts, and less depression (MacDermid, Lee, Buck, & Williams, 2001). Findings reveal that women are more likely to highly value FWA, which may mean that women benefit from FWA more than men (Catalyst, 2001; Hill et al., 2008; Radcliffe Public Policy Center with Harris Interactive, 2000). Based on a literature review, this research assumes that FWA may be a more fulfilling resource for women than men. When female employees feel that they have adequate resources and can exercise discretion, in terms of flexible work policies in the workplace, their job satisfaction and occupational commitment will be significantly different from that of male employees. Therefore, based on literature review, this study builds the following hypothesis:. 23.

(35) Hypothesis 3: Females present more job satisfaction than males after accessing flexible work arrangements. Hypothesis 4: Females present more occupational commitment than males after accessing flexible work arrangements.. 24.

(36) CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS This chapter delineates the research methods, including the research structure, hypotheses, design, measure, and procedure. Moreover, it explains the statistical analysis instrument used to evaluate data.. Research Framework Based on the research questions in Chapter I and hypotheses in Chapter II, the researcher further made up the research framework. The researcher used flexible work arrangements as the independent variable, which included three types arrangements (flexible workhour, flexible schedule and allowance for personal leave), job satisfaction and occupational commitment as dependent variables in the current study, and gender as the moderator among these variables. Figure 3.1. presented the research framework for the current study.. Figure 3.1. Research framework.. 25.

(37) Research Hypotheses The hypotheses of study are demonstrated below as Table 3.1.: Table 3.1. Research Hypotheses H1. Flexible work arrangements make a positive effect on employees’ job satisfaction. H1-1. Flexible workhour makes a positive effect on employees’ job satisfaction. H1-2. Flexible schedule makes a positive effect on employees’ job satisfaction. H1-3. Allowance for personal leave makes a positive effect on employees’ job satisfaction. H2. Flexible work arrangements make a positive effect on employees’ occupational commitment. H2-1. Flexible workhour makes a positive effect on occupational commitment. H2-2. Flexible schedule makes a positive effect on occupational commitment. H2-3. Allowance for personal leave makes a positive effect on occupational commitment. H3. Females present more job satisfaction than males after accessing flexible work arrangements. H4. Females present more occupational commitment than males after accessing flexible work arrangements.. Research Design The research used a national database with the quantitative method to examine the relationships between the independent variable (FWA), dependent variables (Job satisfaction, Occupational Commitment) and the moderator (Gender). The data was selected from the “Taiwan Social Change Survey” (TSCS) by 2015, which is a formal nationwide social survey in Taiwan (Lu et al., 2008). This method was selected because the researcher intended to use nationwide data to statistically analyze, examine and validate relationships between variables.. 26.

(38) Besides, one of purposes of the research was to explore the changing of workplace trend between 2005 and 2015 in Taiwan. The researcher used TSCS data of 2005 and 2015 to observe differences, and compared to the results with the previous research by Lu et al. (2008), who also used the 2005 TSCS data to test the relationships between work flexibility and work outcomes (job satisfaction and organizational commitment) with the mediator of work-life conflicts, to explain the findings.. Research Sample The TSCS series is based at the Academia Sinica Taiwan, which jointly operated by the Institute of Sociology and the Center for Survey Research, and becomes one of the most extensive social survey series of the world (Smith, Kim, Koch, & Park, 2006). By the end of 2015, the TSCS series has accumulated 56 survey data sets, covering 117,392 respondents including behaviors, attitudes and values. It is known for the rigorous methods, including household registration data sampled through the nationwide three-stage stratified proportionto-population size (PPS), home visits completed by well-trained interviewers, exact administration, post-interview authentication, and data inspection. Under the banner of the ISSP, high-quality databases are widely used for academic research and cross-cultural comparisons (Lu, 2011). In this study, the TSCS database was used for secondary data analysis, and the first author was the member of the TSCS research group. Respondents of the 2005 TSCS and the 2015 TSCS were sampled by stratified multi-stage probability proportional to size sampling. Interviews were conducted by trained interviewers using the face-to-face home visit. TSCS has a stringent built-in protocol for replacement when a designated respondent is rejected or not found to establish a representative representation of the sample. (Smith et al., 2006; Lu, 2011). For the analysis, the researcher only selected those respondents who were formal employees. 27.

(39) with a full-time main job but not self-employed, including long-term full-time staff, term contract staff, human resource dispatching, outsourcing or contractor member, to maximize the potential effects.. Research Instrument In order to compare the results of these two years, the researcher selected the mutual questions from the questionnaire of 2005 and 2015 as the research instrument, both of which came from the second module of TSCS - Work Orientation. With the theme of Work Orientation, the researcher chose related questions to measure the relationship between the independent variables, the moderator and the dependent variables. The Work Orientation module included the core questions of ISSP and EASS, as well as other important topics related to Taiwan’s work issues. The questionnaire was designed to fulfill the obligation of international community surveys, and to explore the social changes in Taiwan. The survey questionnaire was self-reported by attended respondents. This instrument had a total 20 items, and was divided in five sections, which were: I.. Personal and demographic data. II.. Occupation. III.. Job & Work Flexibility. IV.. Job Satisfaction. V.. Occupational Commitment From section I to V, this survey questionnaire used different statements, categories and. rating scales in each item in each section. Participants chose the best answer according to their situations and attitudes.. Personal and Demographic Data This section described respondents’ basic information and provided a descriptive analysis. 28.

(40) of the survey participants; it assisted the researcher to select the suitable data from the original database. This section contained a total 4 items with information such as the respondents’ age, gender, residence, and marital status.. Occupation This section described respondents’ occupational information using the C section “Occupation” in Work Orientation; it assisted the researcher to select the suitable data from the original database. The section contained a total 7 items with information such as the respondents’ occupation, job category, employment status and his/her spouse’s employment.. Job & Work Flexibility Flexible work arrangements were used as the independent variable. The independent variable was measured using the F section “Job & Work Flexibility” in Work Orientation. This section contained a total 3 items to present 3 different types of FWA. Each item used different statements and scale modes to represent the degree of authority of flexible work arrangements. The presence of flexible work arrangements was surveyed: (1) Flexible workhours phrased as “How your working hours are decided?” was addressed. Participants chose from three descriptions: cannot change, within certain limits, and entirely free to decide, representing ascending degrees of autonomy or flexibility in work time. (2) Flexible schedule phrased as “How your daily work is organized?” was addressed. Participants chose from four descriptions: free to decide, within certain limits, and not free to decide. After reverse coding, a higher scores represented a higher degree of autonomy or flexibility in organizing schedule. (3) Allowance for personal leave phrased as “How difficult would it be for you to take an hour or two off during working hours, to take care of personal or family matters?” was addressed. Participants chose from four descriptions: not difficult at all, not too difficult, somewhat difficult, and very difficult. After reverse coding, a higher scores represented a. 29.

(41) higher degree of autonomy or flexibility in taking personal leave during work time.. Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction was used as a dependent variable. This dependent variable was measured using the J section of “Job Satisfaction” in Work Orientation. This section contained 3 items in total, and each presented one dimensions of job satisfaction, which were relations, occupation, organization, respectively. Each item used different statements to represent the degree of job satisfaction. The presence of job satisfaction was surveyed: (1) Job satisfaction of workplace relations phrased as “How would you describe relations at workplace” was addressed. The facets of relations contained (a) “…..between management and employees” and (b) “….between workmates/colleagues”. Participants chose from five descriptions: very good, quite good, neither good nor bad, quite bad and very bad. After reverse coding, a higher scores represented a higher degree of satisfaction with workplace relations. (2) Job satisfaction of main job phrased as “How satisfied are you in your (main) job” was addressed. Participants rated from 1 (completely satisfied) to 7 (completely dissatisfied). After reverse coding, a higher scores represented a higher degree of global job satisfaction. (3) Job satisfaction of organization phrased with three statements as (a) “the willingness of hard working to help the firm/organization for succeed,” (b) “working proudly for the firm/organization” and (c) “turn down another job and stay with the firm/organization” were addressed. Participants rated from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). After reverse coding, a higher scores represented a higher degree of satisfaction of current job.. Occupational Commitment Occupational commitment was used as a dependent variable. This dependent variable was measured using the K section of “Occupational Commitment” in Work Orientation. This section contained 3 items in total. Each item used different statements to represent the degree. 30.

(42) of occupational commitment. The presence of occupational commitment was surveyed: (1) Occupational commitment of job change difficulty phrased as “How difficult or easy do you think it would be for you to find a job at least as good as your current one?” was addressed. Participants chose from five descriptions: very easy, fairly easy, neither easy nor difficult, fairly difficult and very difficult, representing ascending degrees of normative commitment of occupation. (2) Occupational commitment of job change possibility phrased as “How likely is it that you will try to find a job with another firm or organization within the next 12 month?” was addressed. Participants chose from four descriptions: very likely, likely, unlikely and very unlikely, representing ascending degrees of commitment to the firm/organization. (3) Occupational commitment of job security phrased as “Do you worry about the possibility of losing your job?” was addressed. Participants chose from four descriptions: worry a great deal, worry to some extent, worry a little and not worry at all. After reverse coding, a higher scores represented a higher degree of commitment to the job.. Instrument Validity The questionnaire of TSCS was available in both Chinese and English. The 2015 version followed the 2005 one. Scholars had not only translated the problems of International Social Survey Programme [ISSP] and Euro-Asian Astronomical Society [EAAS], discussed appropriate Chinese sentences, but also designed some special questions for important or unique social issues in Taiwan. During the formal questionnaire making process, since October 2013, the crew have had five discussions and referred to the examination and preliminary test results of the academic committee. In February 2015, a conference was held to allow question designers, people with relevant experience and research assistants to review and feedback the. 31.

(43) questionnaire. Based on these comments, they modified the questionnaire and assessed the validity of the questions-related topics, such as the meaning of the design topic, the wording, the understanding of the interviewee, and the degree to which the interviewees need to know in determining the answers, recalling and mastering. For the questionnaire of Work Orientation, the crew has interviewed five people for the pre-test (Fu, Chang, Tu, & Liao, 2015).. Data Analysis To represent the degree of variables in that section, the researcher intended to sum the scores of each item in each section, and then used SPSS statistics software for statistical analysis to examine relationships among variables. Also, the researcher intended to compare the scores of each item in section III to IV of data 2005 and 2015 to explain differences of workplace trends over the decade. The following statistics were used to analyze the data:. Descriptive Statistics This analysis summarized the numerical results and presents them concisely (Healey, 2008). The results were shown in the forms of graphs, and tables to provide the reader a better picture of the data (Neuman, 2014). The descriptive statistics included the means and the standard deviation of the data.. Correlation This analysis measured the strength of the relevance between two continuous variables (Gray & Kinnear, 2012). The results showed the strength of relationships between the independent variable (FWA) and the two dependent variables (JS and OC).. T-test The analysis of t-test was used to determine if the means of two groups of data are significantly different from each other. The researcher used t-test to examine the means of variables among two sexes were equal or significantly different.. 32.

(44) Hierarchical Regression This analysis was used when there are two or more independent variables; and the purpose of this regression was to test causation (Gray & Kinnear, 2012). This study tested the direction and effects of the independent variable (FWA) on these two dependent variables (JS and OC), and the effect of the moderator (gender) in these two relationships (FWA and JS, FWA and OC).. Research Procedure The procedure of this study was divided into six steps used to guide the research. First, the researcher identified the topic by reviewing the related literature. Through literature review, it was found that with the evolution of work mode and work attitude, there were more and more studies discuss the cross-generational issues. Keywords included work flexibility, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and international differences. After determining the topic, the researcher established a theoretical framework. Then, the research adopted the national survey (TSCS) as the reliable scale to measure the correlations between variables, analyze the data and compare with the results of the previous study using the same scale to observe whether any difference exists under these variables. The results of the analysis and comparison were also presented and discussed. In the final, the researcher made conclusions and suggestions that will benefit human resource management in Taiwan. The research process was illustrated below:. 33.

(45) Figure 3.2. Research procedure.. 34.

(46) CHAPTER IV RESEARCH RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS This chapter presents the results and finsings of the resaerch data. First, the descriptive statistics is presented, including the demographic characteristics of the sample group. Secondly, the Pearson correlation analyses, the linear and multiple regression analyses and t-test analyses are reported. In addition this chapter presents the discussion and conclusion of the findings.. Descriptive Statistics Sample Characteristics A total 749 samples was selected from the 2015 data in this study. The entire sample was composed of 51.9 percent of males and 48.1 percent of females, with a mean of age of 38.44 (SD = 11.37, range = 18-76). The percent of married was 54.7, and single was 38.6. Over a quarter of the respondents (27.1) were managers at various levels. And 37.7 percent of respondents had a working spouse with full-time jobs. A total 823 samples was selected from the 2005 data in this study. The entire sample was composed of 53.8 percent of males and 46.2 percent of females, with a mean of age of 37 (SD = 10.08, range = 18-76). The percent of married was 61.5, and single was 34.6. Over a quarter of the respondents (28.7) were managers at various levels. And 40.8 percent of respondents had a working spouse with full-time jobs. Genarally, the distribution of each demographic characteristics were similar, with a difference of less than 5%. And there were some interesting differences bewteen 2005 and 2015. For example, the perceptage of married in 2015 was less than 2005, even though the age distributions both in 2005 and 2015 were similar. Otherwise, it presented that people tended to get higher education compared to 2005. The results are shown in Table 4.1.. 35.