This chapter presents some conclusions based on the data analysis and discussions of some possible explanations for the results. This chapter also includes research implications, practical implications, limitations as well as future research suggestions.
Conclusions
The aim of this study was to examine some antecedents of OCB of contingent workers. The antecedents of OCB namely impression management motives, perceived supervisor support, choice of contract and some temporal variables have been proven in literature as having an impact on behavioral outcomes including OCB. This research was conducted in order to confirm some of the antecedents of OCB on contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Job satisfaction, age, gender, education and tenure were controlled for. It was found that none of these factors influenced the global OCB of the current sample and only job satisfaction had some significant impact.
The test on the dimensions provided support for some of the hypotheses. Perceived supervisor support was found to significantly predict conscientiousness, impression management motives and choice of contract predicted attendance. The IMM-time remaining interaction was significant but not in the direction hypothesized but the IMM-expectation interaction was not significant in the models.
Discussions
In Haiti, Non-profit organizations are the ones that are considered to provide the best working conditions, salary and recognition. It is understandable that job satisfaction had the most significant effect in the model of OCB as a global dimension as it until now the best predictor of OCB (Organ et al., 2005). One possible explanation for the predictors not being significant on
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the global dimension is the fact that the pattern of the data showed the OCB dimensions are seen more as distinct constructs than reflections of the OCB concept. In our study, the dimension split into altruism and two compliance components, with factors of each component having a fair enough loading. OCB being still debated as whether formative or reflective (Motowidlo, 2000), in our study, a formative nature looks more acceptable and would better fit the data. This might also explain the non-significance of the predictors besides job satisfaction on the global dimension of OCB.
Impression management motives were found to have an impact on OCB showing that this factor had its part to play in explaining OCB of contingent workers in the organizations surveyed. When the interaction with time remaining was entered however, it added value to the model (please refer to table 4.2 model 4). The significant influence of time remaining on contract on the relationship between IMM and OCB, although not in the expected negative direction, showed that the workers may be motivated to manage impressions early instead of at the end of the contract. Studies on impression management motives for OCB of regular employees such as the one of Hui et al (2000) found these workers to decrease their level of OCB after reaching the desired goal which was a promotion. Our study however showed the contingent workers more likely engaging in OCB early. Usually, depending on the length of the contract and the confirmation of availability of funds and some other considerations, contracts are renewed a month or three weeks before expiration. Figure 4.1 shows zero to 21 days remaining on the contract as not having a significant impact on the regression line with a very weak positive relationship between IMM and OCB. At this time, the worker may already know whether he/she will stay in the organization or not and is not much impression management nor OCB oriented; but still performing some OCB. From 61 days and up, there is a significant positive relationship between IMM and OCB; this might apply to new comers since the first image projected by new comers is very important and the sooner they start to engage in actions which they believe could help in reaching their goals, the better it is. Therefore, the earlier they engage in OCB, the better it would because at the end of the contract it might be too late. The same may apply to contingent workers being employed for a certain time in the organization.
Since every renewal is like a new beginning, they could be motivated to manage impressions early so that they can be renewed again. It is an endless cycle until they leave the organization or maybe find a permanent position.
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The proposed predictors were of very low value to the altruistic dimension of OCB according to the regression results (please see table 4.3 model 5). Only job satisfaction had some slight influence on altruism in model 5. This echoes literature stating that depending on the nature of the predictors; they might relate more to a dimension of OCB and not the other (Farh, podsakoff,
& Organ, 1990; Organ, 1988b). A similar sample from the study of Gay and Yeh (2013) engaged in more altruistic dimensions of OCB than in generalized compliance. The fact that altruism is not explained in the model might be explained by supervisors being more concerned about compliance behaviors and may not be the right people to rate the altruistic dimension of OCB since they may not necessarily be the target of such behaviors. As literature proved contingent workers to be more committed to peers than to the organization (De Gilder, 2003), peers would be more likely to testify these behaviors since they are in much closer contact with the respondents.
Perceived supervisor support in table 4.4 model 5 is related to the frequency of generalized compliance behaviors called conscientiousness in our study. The study showed that the contingent workers are conscious about not wasting time in non-useful conversations, not being on duty only when it is necessary and not taking extra rest breaks. The more support they perceive from their supervisor, the more conscious they are. It is perhaps because the support from supervisor creates a bond between them as it necessitates certain interactions for this support to be provided and the supervisor is likely to pay some special attention to these workers with whom the bond is stronger. Because of this relationship, the subordinate does not or cannot engage in counterproductive behaviors as it will surely be noticed by the supervisor. Choice of contract was significant but not in the hypothesized direction as involuntary choice positively affected the outcome variable instead of having a negative influence. One possible explanation is that involuntarily working under contract is a matter of satisfying the primary needs and earning an income. If the contractor had other options, he/she would rather have a permanent position. Therefore it is important to adhere to the rules and not engage in counterproductive behaviors in the workplace to secure a renewal as often as possible.
Impression management motives were found to influence more the attendance dimension of OCB and this relates to attendance at work. According to the results of table 4.5 under model 5, it looks like the contingent workers believe that these behaviors would enhance their image and avoid them to look bad in front of others. IMM has been related to OCB and in our study the
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sample was impression management motivated with a mean of (4.51) which is close to 5 in the scale. As research in organizational behaviors is progressively leaning towards other contexts than interviews where people might be impression management driven, this study echoes literature on this subject even if the impression management motives in the sample was moderate. Perceived supervisor support in this model was not significant but had an unexpected direction as more supervisory support would lead to less frequent engagement in attendance behaviors. We can try to explain that by the fact that more support from the supervisor can lead to the employee developing some kind of friendship with the supervisor who, in turn would be less strict on these particular attendance behaviors. Such as the employee not providing advance notice when unable to come to work or who comes to work late a couple times would not worry too much about the supervisor taking actions on these behaviors since the employee, once in the workplace is exemplary and does not engage in counterproductive behaviors; this could be considered as compensating for this “laisser-aller”.
Choice of contract was found to influence negatively the attendance dimension of OCB as we can see in table 4.5 under model 5. Despite the fact that these behaviors are interpreted more as what the employee must do, the more the workers are involuntarily working under contract, less they are inclined to engage in these compliance behaviors. In this case, working voluntarily under contract would lead to a more positive experience in the employment relationship and consequently to lead to more positive behaviors (De Cuyper et al., 2008).
From the current sample, 84% of the employees believed their contract would be renewed after it expires. It might be the reason why the IMM-expectation interaction did not show significance. Contract renewals that occur easily without having to stand out from the crowd might possibly explain such insignificance. If the current sample has no struggle having their contract renewed, they might not feel the need to perform OCB compared to the ones who believe OCB would be important in order to be seen more favorably and be renewed.
Research Implications
This study as Paine and Organ (2000) suggested, OCB is not understood the same everywhere and the influential factors as well vary. Research might be needed in order to find out if Haitians
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understand OCB as it is understood in the majority of the studies or if it has some particularities for this sample. This might be an explanation for the little predictive power of most of the factors tested.
This study is among the first of its kind when it comes to contingent workers in the non-profit sector and showed how temporal factors and particularly time remaining on contract has an impact on OCB of these workers. Previous temporary work experience was found in table 4.1 as having a positive significant correlation with altruism. Time remaining on contract has been found to have a direct relationship with attendance in our study and in Clinton et al.’s (2011) study, future expectation of contract continuation has been found to impact the behaviors of contingent workers. This might be an indication that these variable are of some value when it comes to OCB of contingent workers. Since research has not really integrated wider temporal context in studying attitudes and behaviors of contingent workers (Clinton et al., 2011), it would be of great value if future studies could look into confirming the impact of these variables on attitudes and behaviors as suggested by the same authors.
The fact that this sample was not used to taking part in these kind of surveys, and that supervisors were not necessarily paying attention to all these aspects of their subordinates’
behavior in the workplace, this might have contributed to some of them not filling it appropriately or rating job performance instead of OCB. Research on this sample should include a self-report measure of OCB and if possible collect peer reports of OCB in addition to the supervisor’s rating since the supervisor might be not suitable to rate all behaviors. A measure of job performance rated by supervisors would also add benefit to such studies so that both OCB and performance could be measured and provide more accurate results. Peers are believed to be able to better rate some dimensions of OCB like altruism since they are in closer contact with the sample and would perhaps provide more variance to the data and yield better results. The self-report measure of OCB would help in comparing the different sources of rating.
Researchers interested in studying impression management could also use the two dimensions of impression management motives separately since they seem to measure two different motives:
acquisitive and defensive. The use of the two dimensions instead of a combination would eventually yield more accurate results.
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Practical Implications
There are many non-profit actors in Haiti and they do create a substantial number of employments, mostly under contract. Many people turn to non-profit from other sectors even though they are aware that the contract is only short term with no guarantee of renewal (Morton, 1997). Research in organizational behaviors, particularly on OCB is relatively new in Haiti. By focusing on contingent workers in the non-profit sector, this study considered workers being on short-term contract in order to understand better their OCB. Even though the hypotheses were not supported in all the cases, it indicates however that the contingent workers in the non-profit in Haiti are satisfied in a broad sense with their job and that it leads to some levels of OCB.
The satisfaction reported by the respondent provides support to literature about the non-profit sector in Haiti stating that they offer the best employment opportunities in the country (Schuller, 2009). Organizations should not only focus on making sure employees are satisfied; it would be beneficial for them to research their workers in order to find out what works best for them and learn about which can influence the behaviors of these workers that benefit the organization.
According to Gay and Yeh (2013), it is perceived as being the norm to engage in at least the minimum of OCB. But whether OCB is being performed out of a sense of obligation or just voluntarily is still unknown. Nevertheless the organizations’ management would benefit from ensuring that the workplace nurtures such behaviors by having a culture with fair practices, and a good understanding of the workers’ motivations in order to increase their level of OCB (Chien, 2003).
While impression management motives were not found to have a direct impact on OCB, an important finding of this study shows the importance of time remaining on contract in explaining some attitudes of contingent workers. We see that early during the contract there is a stronger relationship with IMM and OCB and towards the end this relationship is negative. This shows how at the end of contract, the genuine good citizens exhibit more OCB and are less IM oriented.
OCB generally considered as beneficial to an organization; scholars however do not all agree on the importance of motives underlying these behaviors (Bolino, 1999). Some authors argue that genuine OCB are more beneficial than impression management motivated OCB. According to Baumeister (1989), the impression management motivated OCB are less beneficial to the organization as these individuals engaging in these types of OCB would be focusing more on
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these motives than the quality of what is being undertaken. Nevertheless it is believed that both impression management oriented and genuine OCB would contribute to some extent to the effectiveness of the organization although at different degrees (Bolino, 1999).
The non-profit sector being altruistic in nature, it is essential that the employees of these organizations, on long or short term contract, help conveying the vision of the organization which is social profit over financial gains. As organizational support is considered as important antecedents of OCB, and that supervisors do represent the organization (Eisenberger et al, 1986), it is important that the leaders recruited in the non-profit sector know the importance of being supportive and act like role models. The human resource department need to hire people who are inclined to perform OCB since they will likely perform and encourage OCB among their peers and subordinates. Surveys on the potential needs of the employees in terms of training and/or other issues and taking action on some of the matters uncovered by the surveys would indicate the support from the organization and would contribute to motivating the staff by showing that the organization cares about their development. Consequently, this would lead an increase of the staff commitment and their reciprocation with OCB. This study confirms the importance of perceived supervisor support on compliance of the sample. The supervisors would benefit from learning how to motivate and support the employees while following procedures as it shows that the more support is perceived from supervisors the less employees are exemplary in attendance behaviors.
Contingent workers are temporary in organizations. Some of them have had long relationships with their organizations and developed some commitment towards the organization. The organizations surveyed showed that these workers somewhat felt taken care of by their supervisors and reciprocated with more impersonal behaviors which, on the long term will benefit the organization.
Limitations
The study focused on surveying direct hired contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. There was no selection of a particular group as all levels were considered and different types of organizations were surveyed. This might have had an impact on the overall results.
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Employees completed a self-report questionnaire measuring their perceived support from supervisor, impression management motives, choice of contract and demographic variables. The researcher acknowledges the possibilities of self-report bias as self-report questionnaires are likely to allow respondents to provide answers which would make them look good (Donaldson &
Grant-Vallone, 2002). However, the same authors argue that self-reports are not necessarily of no value. Since it is always suggested to collect data from different sources particularly when it comes to data which may elicit socially desirable responses, supervisors rated their employees’
engagement in OCB relying on their daily observations in order to reduce these biases. In the quest of avoiding this problem the research seemed to have created another problem with a different source of rating from the supervisors who might have not rated the altruistic dimension appropriately, which might have affected the results. Also some supervisors rated up to 10 subordinates; the fatigue factor might have contributed to affecting the study results of the study.
As it was very difficult to find a database with all the organizations which could have been surveyed, the researcher relied on convenience sampling by referring to acquaintances and friends to request access to these organizations surveyed as it was very difficult to be granted access to the other organizations.
Future Research Suggestions
Since this research was an exploratory study, future research could consider using other measures and/or other predictors as there are many factors to predict OCB of paid workers in the non-profit sector. For this sample in Haiti it is not sure whether OCB is considered as in role or extra role behavior. In an exploratory study by Gay and Yeh (2013), it was found that these workers believed that it was “necessary” to engage in at least a minimum of OCB. This leads the researcher to think that it is almost considered as in role behaviors. Further research could explore whether these behaviors are considered part of the job or going beyond what is in the job
Since this research was an exploratory study, future research could consider using other measures and/or other predictors as there are many factors to predict OCB of paid workers in the non-profit sector. For this sample in Haiti it is not sure whether OCB is considered as in role or extra role behavior. In an exploratory study by Gay and Yeh (2013), it was found that these workers believed that it was “necessary” to engage in at least a minimum of OCB. This leads the researcher to think that it is almost considered as in role behaviors. Further research could explore whether these behaviors are considered part of the job or going beyond what is in the job