Antecedents of Organizational Citizenship Behavior among Contingent Workers in the Non-profit Sector in Haiti

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(1)Antecedents of Organizational Citizenship Behavior among Contingent Workers in the Non-profit Sector in Haiti. by Fabienne GAY. A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of. MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Major: International Human Resource Development. Advisor: C. Rosa Yeh, Ph.D. National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June 2013.

(2) ABSTRACT In order to address a gap relating to OCB of paid employees in the non-profit sector, this study was conducted to examine some antecedents of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in the non-profit sector using 181 contingent workers from nine non-profit organizations in Haiti. It was predicted that perceived supervisor support (PSS) and impression management motives (IMM) would positively relate to OCB while choice of contract (CC) would have a negative relationship. Temporal factors like time remaining on contract was expected to negatively influence the relationship between IMM and OCB and expectation of contract continuation to positively influence that relationship.. Regression results proved PSS to be related to the. conscientiousness dimension of OCB; IMM and CC were found to be related to the attendance dimension as hypothesized. Time remaining on contract positively influenced the relationship between IMM and OCB. Implications are discussed based on the findings.. Keywords: Organizational citizenship behavior, contingent worker, non-profit sector, Haiti. I.

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(4) TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ I Table of contents ........................................................................................................................... III List of tables.................................................................................................................................. VI List of figures ............................................................................................................................... VII. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................................. 1 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 3 Rationale for the Study ................................................................................................................ 3 Questions of the Study ................................................................................................................ 4 Scope of the Study....................................................................................................................... 5 Definition of Terms ..................................................................................................................... 5. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................. 7 Contingent Employment ............................................................................................................. 7 The Specificities of Contingent Employment ......................................................................... 7 The Non-profit Sector ................................................................................................................. 9 The Non-profit Organization ................................................................................................... 9 The International Organization .............................................................................................. 10 The Non-Governmental Organization ................................................................................... 10 A Brief Introduction of Haiti..................................................................................................... 11 The Non-Profit Sector in Haiti .............................................................................................. 11 Organizational Citizenship Behavior ........................................................................................ 12 Antecedents of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors .......................................................... 14 Organizational Citizenship Behavior of Contingent Workers ............................................... 16 Perceived Supervisor Support ............................................................................................... 19 Impression Management........................................................................................................ 20 Choice of Contract ................................................................................................................. 23 Time Remaining on Contract as a Moderator ....................................................................... 24 Expectations of Contract Continuation as a Moderator......................................................... 25. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 27 III.

(5) Research Framework ................................................................................................................. 27 Research Hypotheses................................................................................................................. 28 Research Procedure ................................................................................................................... 30 Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 31 Sampling ................................................................................................................................ 31 Data Collection ...................................................................................................................... 32 Sample Profile ........................................................................................................................... 32 Measurement ............................................................................................................................. 35 Impression Management Motives ......................................................................................... 36 Perceived Supervisor Support ............................................................................................... 36 Choice of Contract ................................................................................................................. 37 Organizational Citizenship Behavior..................................................................................... 37 Temporal Factors ................................................................................................................... 37 Demographics ........................................................................................................................ 38 Control Variables................................................................................................................... 38 Validity and Reliability ............................................................................................................. 39 Exploratory Factor Analysis .................................................................................................. 40 Internal Consistency Reliability ............................................................................................ 42. CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ................................................... 43 Correlation Analysis .................................................................................................................. 43 Hierarchical Regression Analysis ............................................................................................. 45 OCB as Dependent Variable.................................................................................................. 45 Altruism as Dependent Variable............................................................................................ 48 Conscientiousness as Dependent Variable ............................................................................ 49 Attendance as Dependent Variable........................................................................................ 51. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................... 57 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 57 Discussions ................................................................................................................................ 57 Research Implications ............................................................................................................... 60 Practical Implications ................................................................................................................ 62 Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 63 IV.

(6) Future Research Suggestions .................................................................................................... 64. REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 65 APPENDIX A: DIMENSIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS ............................................................................................................................ 77 APPENDIX B: REVIEW OF RECENT RESEARCH ON ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS AS AN OUTCOME ....................................................... 83 APPENDIX C: REVIEW OF RECENT RESEARCH WITH ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS AS ANTECEDENT ............ 88 APPENDIX D: REVIEW OF RECENT RESEARCH ON ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS OF CONTINGENT WORKERS ................................ 91 APPENDIX E: EMPLOYEE QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................... 95 APPENDIX F: SUPERVISOR QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................... 106. V.

(7) LIST OF TABLES Table 2. 1. Working Definitions of Contingent Employment Arrangements ................................. 8 Table 2. 2. Definitions of OCB ..................................................................................................... 13 Table 2. 3. Behaviors of participants with dimensions, number of examples, percentages and samples of behaviors. .................................................................................................................... 16 Table 3. 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Sample …… .................................................................. 33 Table 3. 2. Measurement Scale Items ........................................................................................... 39 Table 3. 3.Rotated Component Matrix for all Variables .............................................................. 40 Table 4. 1. Correlational Analysis ............................................................................................... 43 Table 4. 2. Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting OCB ......... 46 Table 4. 3.Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Altruism .... 48 Table 4. 4. Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Conscientiousness ......................................................................................................................... 50 Table 4. 5. Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Attendance. ....................................................................................................................................................... 52 Table 4. 6.Overview of Hypotheses Testing ................................................................................. 53. VI.

(8) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3. 1. Research Framework ................................................................................................. 27 Figure 3. 2. Research Procedure ................................................................................................... 30 Figure 4. 1. Moderating effect of time remaining between IMM and OCB ................................. 47. VII.

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(10) CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter is an overview of the study which offers an introduction, insights on the background for the study, the problem the research is addressing, the purpose of the study, the questions the researcher will be attempting to answer and the significance of the study.. Background of the Study In the western countries, the use of temporary employment is seen as part of the most significant and noteworthy evolution in their working life (De Cuyper et al., 2008). Organizations, in their imperative need to be more flexible, have adopted different kind of employments in order to reach their goals such as increasingly relying on non-permanent staff to carry out their activities (Kalleberg, 2000). Contingent workers are hired by the businesses, the public sector as well as non-profit organizations (NPO). The NPOs surely differ from the other sectors with their main values but they indeed need flexibility in order to keep running. The nonprofit organizations (NPO), the nongovernmental organizations (NGO) and the International Organizations (IO) and other non-profit actors, also rely on such workers for carrying out their mission throughout the world. Because of the increasing use of contingent workers, non-standard work arrangements like part-time work, contract work and temporary employment consequently have been subjected to behavioral and economic studies aimed at investigating the impact of such type of employment at both individual and organizational levels (Connelly & Gallagher, 2004; Kalleberg, 2000). This type of workforce can vary; there are temporary-firm workers, direct hires, consultants as well as independent contractors (Parks, Kidder, & Gallagher, 1998). They have been further identified based on their preference for temporary work as voluntary and involuntary (Marler, Barringer, & Milkovich, 2002). There have been a number of non-profit operators in Haiti; after the January 2010 earthquake when more than 200,000 people died and 1.5 million were left homeless, these organizations’ presence increased significantly. Because of the weakness of the national institutions and limited capacity of the state, the contributions from the non-profit sector and private contractors have 1.

(11) come to be of noticeable importance (Ramachandran & Walz, 2012). An overview of one of the widely used job seeking website called jobpaw.com shows a significant number of job offers from various non-profit actors both locals and internationals. The majority of these postings from the non-profit sector are short-term assignments varying from less than three months to sometimes a year. These organizations are renowned for offering better work conditions and job opportunities. About one third of formal employments are provided by this sector in the country. These types of assignments in the non-profit organizations can be explained by the financial uncertainty these organizations are facing. Therefore, they cannot offer permanent positions to all their employees (McMullen & Schellenberg, 2003). An emerging topic relating to the contingent workforce is that of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCB). By definition, these behaviors are discretionary, not formally included in the employee’s job description nor rewarded but promote the effective functioning of the organization (Organ, 1988; Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983). According to Smith et al. (1983) OCB has two main factors identified as altruism and generalized compliance. The former aims to helping a person directly while the latter does not target any particular individual but contributes to everyone in the system. Literature suggested that OCB is present everywhere, influencing factors may vary from a country to another and that the importance of some factors may vary depending on the standpoint of regular worker or contingent worker (Blatt, 2008; Paine & Organ 2000). Literature has highlighted differences among levels of OCB for temporary workers compared to permanent ones. They often report lower levels from the temporaries (CoyleShapiro & Kessler, 2002; Van Dyne & Ang, 1998) whereas Kidder (1995) found no difference between permanent and contingent nurses. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment have also been studied in relation to OCB (Williams & Anderson, 1991) since they have been considered as being the main predictors of such behaviors with job satisfaction being the best predictor (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Organ, Podsakoff, & Mackenzie, 2005). Other factors like perceived organizational support and perceived supervisor support have been studied in relation to OCB of non-standard workers (Wayne, Shore, & Liden, 1997; Zhao & Yu, 2009). Furthermore, organizational concern, prosocial behaviors, impression management have also been investigated as being motives to engage in OCB (Rioux & Penner, 2001; Rosenfeld, Giacalone, & Riordan, 1995).. 2.

(12) Organizations nowadays are more than ever conscious of their need for people willing to engage in these behaviors for them to be more successful. The non-profit sector in Haiti plays a noticeable role in providing jobs, though mostly temporary, in the country. A good understanding of how to manage their workers, and particularly these workers they hire on shortterm contracts in order to motivate the best out of them is critical for this sector to be competitive as the workforce has been identified as key contributors to an organization’s effectiveness. Since the non-profit sector also relies on such workers, OCB indeed represents a very important issue for that sector since the primary mission of these organizations is social profit (Zabihi, Hashemzehi, & Hashemzehi, 2012).. Statement of the Problem As the use and research about contingent workers is blooming, research on the citizenship behaviors of this segment is still at a moderate level compared to permanent workers (Connelly & Gallagher, 2004).. Research has covered various aspects of citizenship behaviors and. explained its connection with many factors such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, perceived organizational support, perceived supervisor support, various motives as predictors and with organizational effectiveness among the outcomes. Considering the importance of these behaviors that have been studied widely in the business sector, none or very limited studies so far have covered organizational citizenship behaviors of paid employees outside of the corporate structure. The current study therefore will help in having a better insight of some influential factors on OCB of contingent workers which have not yet been explored in the current study context which is the non-profit sector according to Zabihi et al. (2012) and as per the researcher’s knowledge from review of literature.. Rationale for the Study The present study is to address OCB of contingent workers in the non-profit sector by considering the influence of some potentially influential factors already studied but not yet applied to the current sample. A preliminary study from Gay and Yeh (2013) found OCB of 3.

(13) contingent workers in this sector to be predicted by support perceived from their supervisor and impression management motives. These workers expressed their concerns about not knowing whether their contract would be renewed or not. This showed somehow their willingness to stay in the organization by having their contract renewed. As suggested by Clinton, Bernhard-Oettel, Rigotti and Jong (2011), temporal variables might have an effect on work attitudes and behaviors of non-permanent workers. Since it is important to consider temporal variables when studying contingent workers, the researcher believes the time remaining on contract and expectation of contract continuation could influence the behaviors of the sample with less time remaining and negative expectations bringing more stress. This study examined perceived supervisor support, impression management motives, and contract of choice which also is considered as important when it comes to OCB of contingent workers. Time remaining on contract and expectations of employment continuation are the temporal variables considered in this study.. Previous. temporary work experience and contract duration were also considered in the demographics for a better understanding of the sample and to see if there would be any correlations with OCB. As behavioral studies among Haitian workers are scarce, this study is among the first of its kind when it comes to Haitian workers and it will contribute to Haitian literature which is in great need of such research. This research also aimed to fill the gap relating to organizational citizenship behaviors in the non-profit sector which has not yet been explored among paid employees.. Questions of the Study Citizenship behaviors are very important for organizations, even more in the non-profit sector which main goals and objectives are about alleviating suffering in the world and provide help for development. The nature of these organizations requires them to have people engaging in these behaviors which can help improve their competitiveness in the long run. Therefore the research questions for this study are as follow: 1. How does perceived supervisor support influence OCB of contingent workers in the nonprofit sector in Haiti?. 4.

(14) 2. How do impression management motives guide the contingent workers engagement in OCB in the non-profit sector in Haiti? 3. How important is choice of contract when it comes to the OCB of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti? 4. How important are temporal factors such as time remaining on current contract and expectation of contract continuation in understanding the OCB of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti?. Scope of the Study A delimitation of this study is that it only focused on three general dimensions of OCB which are altruism, conscientiousness and attendance since most of the behaviors identified by Gay and Yeh’s (2013) study were related to behaviors oriented towards individuals and others towards the organization. Furthermore the researcher only focused on a limited number of factors relating to OCB. Some other important variable not mentioned in this research may influence citizenship behaviors. The purpose of the research was to study organizational citizenship behavior in the Haitian context; the sample was constituted of different contractual Haitian workers in the nonprofit sector in Haiti. Only temporary workers are considered for the study and there was no study of permanent employees for comparison. This study focused on OCB of the participants as the outcome behavior, not the productivity or efficacy of such behaviors for the organization. Due to the size of the sample to be surveyed it might not accurately represent the whole country or the entire sector.. Definition of Terms Non-Profit Sector- Organizations which are independent from the government and whose course of actions is distinct from the state and the private sector. They are usually exempt from taxes, their profit is reinvested for accomplishing the mission of the organization, and they may be staffed by volunteers as well as paid employees. In our study non-profit sector will be used to refer to NGOs, NPOs as well as International Organizations. 5.

(15) Non-Governmental Organization -“Private organizations that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or undertake community development" (Operational Directive 14.70 as cited in World Bank and NGOs, 2005) Organizational Citizenship Behavior- Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCB) are these behaviors that are individual, discretionary, and not directly or formally recognized by the reward system, but in the aggregate contribute to the effectiveness of the organization. (Organ, 1988; Smith et al., 1983) Contingent worker- The contingent workers are those who do not have an implicit or explicit contract for ongoing employment (Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangement, 2005) Perceived Supervisor Support- The belief the employee has that the supervisor acknowledges all efforts and cares about the employee wellbeing (Kottke & Sharafinski, 1988) Impression Management Motives- refer to individuals who are concerned of avoiding to look bad and to gain rewards (Rioux and Penner, 2001). Choice of Contract – The choice of contract refers to the reasons for working voluntarily or involuntarily under temporary contract Temporal Factors – refer to variables relating to past temporary work experiences, actual contract duration and future expectations of employment which may influence the contingent worker’s behavioral outcomes.. 6.

(16) CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW. Contingent Employment During the past two decades, there has been a noticeable inclination toward giving other directions to the worker-employer employment relationship in the industrialized nations and an increase of the use of employment differing from the traditional employment when it comes to stability (Anderson, Brosnan, & Walsh, 1994; Parks et al., 1998). By definition, the contingent workers are those who do not have an implicit or explicit contract for prolonged employment (Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangement, 2005). One of the characteristics of contingent workers is the uncertainty relating to their job stability, the contractor is fully aware of the temporary status of his/her employment (Dagot & Voisin, 2007; De Witte & Näswall, 2003; Onyishi, 2010).. The Specificities of Contingent Employment Despite the increasing use of contingent workers by organizations and the emergence of studies covering this segment of the workforce, this area of research is still facing difficulties finding clear definitions for contingent or alternative employment (Gallagher & Sverke, 2005). A definition of contingent workers provided by Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangement (2005) states that they are those who do not have an implicit or explicit contract for ongoing employment. In light of that definition we can distinguish, according to Connelly and Gallagher (2004) different types of contingent workers such as independent contractors, directhires or in-house temporaries, temporary-help service firms’ workers.. The independent. contractors are these people providing their services to an organization for a specific period of time. The temporary-help service workers are involved in a tripartite relationship between an employment agency, a client organization and the worker where it is clearly stated that the employment will be of fixed duration. The in-house temporaries are also called direct hires and are directly hired by an organization to meet its needs. The table 2.1 from Parks et al. (1998) provides working definitions of different types of workers in a non-traditional employment relationship. 7.

(17) Table 2.1. Working Definitions of Contingent Employment Arrangements Exemplar categories Definition Core Permanent full-time and part-time workers with either an implicit or explicit understanding that employment will be continuous or ongoing Floats. Full-time employees who are moved around within different departments or divisions within the organization as a regular part of their job. Networked. Individuals whose work is performed outside the boundaries of their home organization. In-house temporaries. Workers hired by the organization to meet variable scheduling needs, listed in a `registry' (i.e., performs function of temporary agency). Direct-hire or Workers for whom organizations advertise and recruit for the purpose seasonal temporaries of filling position vacancies as needed Leased workers. Employee leasing company effectively `rents' an entire workforce to a client employer. Temporary firm workers. The temporary firm is the employer, rather than the client organization who utilizes the workers. Subcontracted workers. Work is transferred to another organization whose employees perform the tasks on or off the premises of the client company. Consultants. Organization either contracts with a professional consulting firm or with independent consultants for the completion of a project. Independent Brought into the firm to supply specific skills, from manual labor such as contractors plumbing to software and other engineering applications ______________________________________________________________________________ Source: “Fitting square pegs into round holes: Mapping the domain of contingent work arrangements onto the psychological contract,” by Parks, Kidder, and Gallagher (1998), Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19(S1), p.702. Studies on temporary workers classified them into clusters of people voluntarily choosing this type of work because it fits their needs, involuntary temporaries and people working under contract for the time being but with the objective of changing to permanent status in the future either with the same organization or elsewhere. 8.

(18) The Non-profit Sector. The Non-profit Organization There are several major actors in a society which, with their specific activities play an inherent role in keeping a society alive. These players are: the state also called the first sector that is in charge of a nation, the marketplace or second sector which is entirely engaged in economic and financial actions in the society, the civil society or third sector which comprises the non-profit actors.. All these actors co-exist within a society to keep it running (Lee, 2012).. What. differentiate the NPO with the for-profit organizations is their values. The for-profit’s main purpose is to accumulate financial gains which help expansion and generate profits that are shared to enrich their shareholders whereas the non-profit focus is more socially oriented. The NPO gains, if any, are reinvested in accomplishing its mission instead of being shared amongst individuals. The non-profit activities vary from environmental protection to education, from humanitarian aid to health, religion, charities and so on. Like the for-profit organization, the NPO has an organizational structure making sure its operations runs smoothly and efficiently, need funds to operate, has employees, care about its image, and needs to be competitive in order to stay afloat. According to Basini and Buckley (1997), the third sector refers to organizations whose course of actions is distinct from the state and the private sector. This term includes the organizations also referred to as non-profit, voluntary or charities, and independent. The key characteristics of the third sector actors are: 1. They do not necessarily exist to generate profits for the owners, but they may generate income that is spent. 2. They may be outside the realm of government and private enterprise, but they may rely on both for funding or expertise etc. 3. They may be staffed by unpaid volunteers as well as paid employees 4. They may be exempt from taxation on income or property and may generate revenues through charitable donation. (p.2). 9.

(19) The International Organization International organizations (IOs) are "associations established by governments or their representatives that are sufficiently institutionalized to require regular meetings, rules governing decision-making, a permanent staff, and headquarters." (Shanks, Jacobson, & Kaplan, 1996, p. 593). International Organizations are organizations which, instead of individual and private groups as members as it is the case in NGOs, have nations as members. This definition is used following the standards set by the United Nations and the Yearbook of International organizations (McCormick & Kihl, 1979). There are generally three types of international organizations: intergovernmental organization, the international nongovernmental organization, the multinational enterprises (Types of International Organizations, 1978). Literature says that the main purpose of IOs is to resolve cross-border matters that cannot be addressed by the concerned local authorities (Mansfield & Pevehouse, 2006) .. The Non-Governmental Organization Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) are defined as: “private organizations that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or undertake community development" (Operational Directive 14.70 as cited in World bank and NGOs, 2005). The International NGOs operate internationally and are actively engaged in development and strongly oriented towards improving the quality of life or the less fortunate in less developed countries (Werker & Ahmed, 2008) whereas the local NGOs course of action do not cross borders. Despite the professionalization of NGOs in the last decades, orientation towards helping behaviors and voluntarism are the major characteristics of these organizations, and financial purposes are not the main objectives (Werker & Ahmed, 2008; World Bank and NGOs, 2005).. 10.

(20) A Brief Introduction of Haiti Haitian Republic is located in the West Indies and is delimited by the Dominican Republic at the east and with which the island is shared. It has about 10 million habitants and they have mostly African roots but there is also a presence of French, Spanish cultures (Lawson-Body, Willoughby, Keengwe, & Mukankusi, 2011).. Due to the various tumultuous events that. happened and that hardly hit the Haitian economy along with the earthquake of 2010, the actual administration, aspiring to bring foreign investments in the country, instigated a campaign to this purpose. According to Institut Haitien de Statistiques et d' Informatique (2010) (IHSI), at the national level, the unemployment rate is 16.8% but in the metropolitan area where most of the activities are being carried out, the rate is of 33.3%. In rural area, the rate is 9.4%.. The Non-Profit Sector in Haiti In Haiti, following the devastating earthquake of January 2010, the number of operating nonprofit operators has increased and these organizations provide masses of employment. According to Ramachandran and Walz (2012), due to deficiencies of the government and the institutions, NGOs and private contractors are now playing a very important role in the country. However, it is difficult to estimate the number of NGOs that are operating in Haiti. Estimations vary significantly and not all of these organizations are registered with the Ministry of Planning (Ramachandran & Walz, 2012). Estimates vary from 343 (Unite de Coordination des Activites des ONG, n.d.) to more than 10,000 (Street, 2004). A search for job banks led us to one of the most used website in Haiti called “Jobpaw.com”. On this website, From October to December 2012, over 50 non-profit organizations have posted at least one job vacancy; some have posted around 25 positions for these three months. There are postings from international agencies, NGOs, private actors and some positions in the government offices. The non-profit job offers totalled 252 positions with 176 being short-term. Only a few posts were from the private and public sector who offered some short and long term positions totalling 40 jobs. An interesting point made by Morton (1997) in the document called Haiti: NGO sector study, is that NGOs pointed out that they head hunt the best technicians from many of the government agencies because of their better offers when it comes to compensation, 11.

(21) working conditions and work recognition. According to the same author, the short duration of the contracts does not stop these workers to join the NGOs because the advantages do outweigh the inconvenience of the limited contract duration. According to Schuller (2009), they provide almost one-third of all formal sector jobs and are considered as offering the most respected and with well-paying positions. They even lead to the Haitian concept of NGO class. The author pursues by saying that there is a real “brain drain” for the benefit of the private and non-profit sector to the detriment of the public sector (p.20).. While there is no official database of. employment created by this sector, the investigation the researcher conducted online could give a rough idea of the jobs created. As seen on the website, 86% of the posts were from the nonprofit sector with 69.84 % of these being short term renewable contracts varying from less than three months to six months and sometimes one year. Their staffs are both international and local hires. Many of the NPOs, international organizations and NGOs in Haiti provide employment under renewable contract (Tremlett & Collins, 1999) as they have funds for ongoing or projects to be executed or for other specific purposes. The times for implementations and execution vary in length but often go from one to six months or a year depending on the complexity of the activity. This is due particularly to the fact that frequently they execute projects that are funded by an entity (donor) and they hire temporary workers to have the project completed. It happens that employees are rerouted to new projects as they unfold, but most of the time, these employees are terminated upon completion of the project putting them in the situation to find another job (Clinton et al., 2011).. Organizational Citizenship Behavior Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) relates to these behaviors that are individual, discretionary, and not directly or formally recognized by the reward system, but in the aggregate contribute to the effectiveness of the organization (Organ, 1988; Smith et al., 1983). This construct has captured attention of many scholars who provided further definitions and developed other dimensions. Later, in order to fit with the changing world of organizations, it has been redefined as “contributions to the maintenance and enhancement of the social and psychological context that supports task performance” (Organ, 1997, p. 91). There are many different definitions but they generally are based on the discretionary, the non-formally rewarded 12.

(22) nature of OCB as well as these behaviors being beneficial to the organization. Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) has been studied extensively and it has been proven essential for profit and non-profit organizations to have people willing to engage in such behaviors. Smith and colleagues (1983) identified initially two types of citizenship behaviors: altruism which is directly linked to intentional interaction with a specific person to provide some help and generalized compliance which refers to behaviors not specifically targeting a person in particular but which indirectly benefit everyone in the system. Different factor structures have been identified across different studies on the psychological properties of OCB.. A two-factor. structure with altruism and generalized compliance as well as a three-factor structure with altruism items loading on one factor and compliance splitting in different ways have been identified (Organ et al., 2005). Koh, Steers, and Terborg (1995), Organ and Konovsky (1989), Podsakoff, Niehoff, MacKenzie, and Wiliams (1993) reported a three-factor structure in their studies. Podsakoff et al. (1993) identified one factor relating to altruism, another formed by the three negative statements with positive meanings relating to employee effort labelled conscientiousness; and the last referring to attendance which relates to being present at work and punctual. Table 2.2 shows some of the various OCB definitions used in literature.. Table 2.2. Definitions of OCB Definition Year Author Discretionary behaviors which transcend the elementary requirements of the 2006 Lambert job but beneficial to the organization Employee behaviors albeit not of great importance to the job which do 2002 Lee and contribute to the organization functioning Allen “Contributions to the maintenance and enhancement of the social and 1997 Organ psychological context that supports task performance” (p.91) Behaviors that are individual, discretionary, and not directly or formally 1988 Organ recognized by the reward system, but in the aggregate contribute to the effectiveness of the organization “OCB includes any of those gestures (often taken for granted) that lubricate 1983 Bateman the social machinery of the organization but that do not directly inhere in the and usual notion of task performance”. (p.588) Organ Note. This table was compiled by the author for the purpose of this study 13.

(23) Research has therefore identified various other forms of OCB. Review of literature show evidence of many different forms of OCB. Organ et al. (2005) arranged these multiple behaviors identified under seven main categories: Helping which relates to behaviors oriented towards helping others whether with personal or work related matters and also to avoid work-related problems, Sportsmanship which relates to seeing the bright side in difficult situations, organizational loyalty which involves defending the organization, protecting and promoting a good image of it. There is also the organizational compliance where people adopt principles and procedures willingly, individual initiative where people take initiatives voluntarily to better their tasks or the organization’s performance and encourage others to do the same, civic virtue referring to the will to actively focus on benefit of the organization by all means possible such as attending non-mandatory meetings, making suggestions for improvement, and self-development, referring to the will of individuals to better their knowledge, skills and abilities so that they can better perform their job. Each dimension regroups the related OCB constructs studied by scholars. Appendix A shows the grouping of various dimensions as well as their definition as depicted by literature.. Antecedents of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors A review of OCB literature by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bacharach (2000) led them to identify mainly four categories of OCB antecedents from empirical research: individual (or employee) characteristics, task characteristics, organizational characteristics, and leadership behaviors. Extensive studies have been conducted on the relationships between antecedents such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Podsakoff & Mackenzie, 2005; William & Anderson, 1991), perceived organizational/supervisor support (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006; Randall, Cropanzano, Bormann, & Birjulin, 1999) perceived fairness (Moorman, Niehoff & Organ, 1993; Organ & Ryan, 1995), leader behaviors (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Bommer, 1996; Wayne et al., 1997), work environments (Turnipseed & Murkinson, 1996) organizational concern, prosocial behaviors, impression management (Rioux & Penner, 2001; Rosenfeld et al., 1995) as well as dispositional variables (Konovsky & Organ, 1996; Organ & Ryan, 1995) and OCB. Paine and Organ (2000) argue that if employees do not. 14.

(24) feel equity in the performance management in the organization, this might reduce their will to perform OCB. OCB is not understood the same way everywhere as well as what encourage or hinder them as suggested by Paine and Organ (2000). There is a link between culture and performance of OCB, according to Chhokar, Zhuplev, Fok, and Hartman's (2001) study where they examined differences among cultures relating to OCB and equity theory of motivation though it was an exploratory research. Paine and Organ (2000) proposed that cultures differ in the way they understand and perform OCB.. Kumar (2005), in response to the need of. understanding and measuring OCB in a specific culture developed a measure of citizenship performance for NGOs in India. Farh, Earley and Lin (1997) and Farh, Zhong and Organ (2004), in order to respond to the need of culturally specific OCB measures, explored OCB in Taiwan and China. These studies identified dimensions which appear in the Chinese and Taiwanese societies which are unique to these countries alongside some dimensions common to the western countries. It has been demonstrated that in difficult economic conditions such as in Romania, OCB is present but in a lesser degree than in a better economy (Turnipseed & Murkison, 2000). Penner, Midili and Kegelmeyer (1997) advocate that OCB may be performed for various motives other than reciprocation.. Consequently, Rioux and Penner (2001) developed the. citizenship motives scale (CMS) which investigated the relationship between organizational concern, prosocial values and impression management motives. They found pro-social values and organizational concern as influencing OCB more than impression management motives do. However this does not exclude the potential influence IM motives may have on OCB. Thus, impression management concerns are not to be overlooked when trying to understand OCB as they might help one in achieving some specific goals (Salamon & Deutsch, 2006). Additionally, this construct has been related to performance appraisal for administrative purposes of promotions and pay increases (Paine & Organ, 2000) because supervisors cannot ignore OCB – also called contextual performance – when conducting performance reviews (Aguinis, 2012). Supplementary studies on OCB in relation to various other constructs are shown in Appendix B and Appendix C.. 15.

(25) Organizational Citizenship Behavior of Contingent Workers A variety of studies have covered the importance of OCB as more and more organization have understood its value since they have become conscious that they cannot be effective if employees do not engage at all in those behaviors (Aguinis, 2012). With the changing nature of the workplace, there is a great need of adaptation from the organizations in order to say in the race. For that reason, progressively more organizations are using temporary workers in order to be more flexible and adjust faster to the changing environment. Studies on OCB relating to contingent workers have reported lower levels compared to regular employees such as the research of Van Dyne and Ang (1998) about contingent workers in Singapore, Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler (2002) about workers in the public sector and De Gilder (2003) about contingent workers in the hospitality sector. The findings from Engellandt and Riphahn, (2005) on the other hand say the contrary. They argue that temporary employees provide significantly more effort than permanent employees. According to Gay and Yeh’s (2013) study, of contingent workers’ engage in mainly two types of behaviors: some oriented towards individuals and others towards the organization as shown in table 2.3. Table 2.3. Behaviors of Participants with Dimensions, Number of Examples, Percentages and Samples of Behaviors. Dimension. Altruism. Total altruism Organizational compliance. Behavior Helping. # of % examples 16 23.53. Courtesy Cheerleading. 15 4. 22.06 5.88. Peacemaking. 1. 1.47. 36 20. 52.94 29.41. Generalized compliance. Sample of behaviors Allow co-worker to use my computer when needed Smiling more often, keeping work area tidy Leave a congratulation note on the desk of a colleague who deserves it Avoid situations that would result in conflicts with colleagues Respect the hierarchy. (continued). 16.

(26) Table 2.3. (continued) Dimension Organizational loyalty. Individual initiative. Behavior Loyal boosterism. # of % examples 3 4.41. Civic virtue. 5. 7.35. Making suggestions. 4. 5.88. Sample of behaviors Provide info to outsiders about the organization’s achievements Attending meetings not necessarily related to my functions Willingly provide creative suggestions to improve department. Total others 32 47.05 Total for all 68 99.99 behaviors Source: “Contingent workers in non-governmental organizations in Haiti: an exploration of organizational citizenship behavior” by Gay and Yeh, (2013), paper presented at the International Development Cooperation Student Paper Competition Conference, Taipei Factors such as perceived organizational support, perceived supervisor support have been studied in relation to OCB of non-standard workers (Zhao & Yu, 2009). Research has also highlighted that temporary knowledge workers have experiences as well as underlying factors which are distinct from regular employees (Blatt, 2008). Therefore, it is of major importance for the organizations to foster an environment with practices, policies and a structure which encourages both contingent and permanent employees to go beyond their job description. Research then has emphasized on the importance of OCB for any organization to be competitive and also because these behaviors are essential in making the work environment a good place for task performance to occur effectively (Vigoda-Gadot, 2007). This testifies the increasing importance of OCB in organizations.. Therefore, in order to be and remain. competitive organizations need to have these people willing to engage in OCB which can be part of the distinctive competencies that will help the organization outmatch competitors (Paine & Organ, 2000). Even with the obvious need of organizations for these extra-role behaviors, the fact that they are discretionary puts the organization in the impossibility to try to act upon individuals who choose not to engage in them (Dutschke, 2008). Appendix D shows additional research on OCB of contingent workers.. 17.

(27) Antecedents of OCB of contingent workers. Contingent. work. does. not. involve. an. ongoing. employer-employee. relationship.. Consequently, there is a different type of relationship between the contingent worker and the organization; therefore not all the factors related to regular workers may apply to contingent workers to justify their behaviors. For instance, what is important for them might not be as important for permanent workers and vice versa. Consequently, there is a different type of relationship between a contingent worker and an organization; therefore not all the factors related to regular workers may apply to contingent workers. In a qualitative research on temporary knowledge workers, Blatt (2008) found that an important factor for contingent workers to engage in OCB is a need for good relationships with peers.. On the other hand, for permanent workers, relationships with peers are not more. important than their engagement towards the organization. Buonocore, Metallo and Salvatore (2009), and De Witte and Näswall (2003) argue that job insecurity has no significant impact on these workers’ behaviors whereas Feather and Rauter (2004) say the contrary when it comes to teachers under contract. This assumes certain inconsistencies relating to job insecurity and OCB of contingent workers who, according to literature are not a homogeneous sample. We can see also in literature that flexible workers can either exhibit the same level of OCB or out-pass their permanent counterparts in comparative studies (Dutschke, 2008). De Gilder (2003) found out that OCB of contingent workers is highly influenced by team commitment compared to their permanent workers whose OCB is strongly and positively related to trust (Aryee, Budhwar, & Chen, 2002) and continuance commitment but not. to team commitment.. Considerable research has covered also the relationship between job satisfaction and temporary work.. Studies state a higher level of satisfaction from permanent workers compared to. temporary employees. The contrary, however, has also been demonstrated where temporaries were found to have higher job satisfaction than their permanent counterparts (De Cuyper et al., 2008). Commitment and satisfaction, as they have been identified as key predictors of OCB, are even of greater importance when relating to contingent workers (Dutschke, 2008). Gay and Yeh (2013) in a recent qualitative study about contingent workers in NGOs in Haiti found that these workers of the non-profit sector had various factors influencing their OCB. While they stated the feeling of obligation to engage in those behaviors, the findings highlighted. 18.

(28) different organizational factors such as the support from supervisors, organization practices; and individual factors such as the need to look good as influencing their level of engagement in OCB.. Perceived Supervisor Support Social exchange theory helps in understanding the display of OCB. Relationships relating to social exchange do not involve, like economic exchanges, predefined and measurable mutual obligations (Blau, 1964; Masterson, Lewis, Goldman, & Taylor, 2000). For instance, people might engage in citizenship behaviors towards other people hoping that in return the beneficiaries will return these behaviors.. The organizational support theory supposes that. employees form convictions relating to the degree to which the organizations value their efforts and cares about them. In return, they often feel the need to reciprocate with different behaviors like commitment or OCB. Empirical studies provide evidence of such beliefs and confirmed relationships between perceived organizational support (POS) and OCB (Eisenberger, Fasolo, & Davis-LaMastro, 1990; Wayne et al., 1997) on the ground of reciprocity. Because employees are closer to their supervisor and there is greater interaction between them rather than between the employees and the organization, perceived supervisor support (PSS) has been also considered as being an indication for organizational support (Aselage & Eisenberger, 2003). Thus, when it comes to supervisors, employees also develop beliefs relating to how much they are being valued by these supervisors. Kottke & Sharafinski (1988) as well as Hutchinson (1997) assessed the psychometric properties of POS and PSS; they were found not to overlap.. While the. supervisors’ role is somehow, in the subordinates’ view, the representation of the organization (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986) it is possible for employees not to have the same kinds of exchange relationships with both the supervisor and the organization (Stinglhamber & Vandenberghe, 2003). Perceived supervisor support for employees is therefore the belief the employee has that the supervisor acknowledges all efforts and cares about the employee wellbeing (Kottke & Sharafinski, 1988). According to Randall et al. (1999), OCB is influenced by support from supervisor and this is in accordance with Likert’s (1967) who stated that employees’ work outcomes are influenced by support from supervisors. In their review of literature, Podsakoff et al. (2000) acknowledge the importance of perceived supervisor support on OCB. OCB not being formally recognized by the 19.

(29) reward systems, it might be a channel through which an employee gives back to the support received from a supervisor or the organization (Wayne & Green, 1993). When it comes to contingent workers, there is also evidence of such relationships between their behaviors and their perception of the organization. VanYperen, Berg and Willering (1999) in their study found positive relationships between participation in decision-making, perceived organizational support and OCB of temporary workers. Furthermore, for nonstandard employees, POS has significant positive correlations with OCB (Zhao & Yu, 2009). In an exploratory study of contingent workers in NGOs in Haiti, OCB has been found to be influenced by support from supervisors (Gay & Yeh 2013). Perception of a supportive leader by a temporary worker is positively related to OCB and how he/she perceives an instrumental and participative leader is negatively related to these behaviors (Djibo, Desiderio, & Price, 2010). This, according to the author, makes helping dimension of OCB for temporary employees more a factor of “liking a supervisor” than a feeling of obligation.. The researcher therefore will investigate how perceived supervisor support. influence the level of OCB of contingent workers. Hypothesis 1: Perceived supervisor support has a positive relationship with contingent workers’ OCB in the nonprofit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 1a: Perceived supervisor support has a positive relationship with contingent workers’ altruism in the nonprofit sector in Haiti Hypothesis 1b: Perceived supervisor support has a positive relationship with contingent workers’ conscientiousness behaviors in the nonprofit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 1c: Perceived supervisor support has a positive relationship with contingent workers’ attendance behaviors in the nonprofit sector in Haiti.. Impression Management Impression Management (IM) is defined as the process by which individuals attempt to influence the way people perceive them (Rosenfeld, et al., 1995). Research has investigated IM in various contexts such as studies relating to interviews (Ellis, West, Ryan, & DeShon, 2002;. 20.

(30) Kristof-Brown, Barrick, & Franke, 2002), career success (Wayne, Liden, Graf, & Ferris, 1997), performance evaluations (Wayne & Ferris, 1990; Wayne & Liden, 1995). Other studies have considered IM in relation to OCB (Bolino, 1999; Bolino & Turnley, 1999; Yun, Takeuchi, & Liu, 2007) or seeking feedback (Ashford & Northcraft, 1992). This shows the expansion of IM from the interview situations to more organizational behaviors as there are various contexts where individuals may want to manage the image they project. According to Rosenfeld et al. (1995), IM theory assumes that “a basic human motive, both inside and outside of organizations, is to be seen by others in favorable manner and to avoid being viewed negatively” (p.29). Due to the variety of impression management means, they can be underlying motives for various behaviors and be helpful to reach various goals depending on the needs of the individual. Leary and Kovalsky (1990) reviewed literature on impression management in order to reduce the numbers of variables affecting impression management (IM). Based on an expectancy-value model of IM, they identified three main factors: the goal relevance of impressions, the value of image enhancement, and the discrepancy between current and desired images which may motivate to engage in IM. Goal relevance of impression means individuals are likely to use IM when they believe it will help them achieve their goals. People tend to engage in citizenship behaviors for impression-management reasons when it becomes increasingly important for them to be seen as good people. The last set of factors which could link to an individual's impressionmanagement motivation is the difference in the desired image and the one the individual believes others may hold (Bolino & Turnley, 1999).. Impression management motives as an antecedent of OCB. Impression management motives have been categorized as having two orientations: the one worrying essentially about avoiding negative reactions from people also called protective or defensive impression management and the orientation which main concern is to actively gain approval from targeted people which is called acquisitive or assertive impression management (Arkin, 1981; Palmer, Welker, Campbell, & Magner, 2001; Tetlock & Manstead, 1985). Impression management motives make people concerned with that particular need to avoid looking bad and to get rewards (Rioux & Penner, 2001).. 21.

(31) Hui, Lam and Law (2000) found that employees who believed that going beyond what is expected would increase their chances for promotion and thus engaged in higher levels of citizenship behaviors.. However, they decreased their level of OCB after the promotion.. Impression management was therefore their main motive for engaging in OCB in order for them to reach that goal which was the desired promotion. While impression management can be motives for engaging in OCB for permanent workers, Blatt (2008) argues that temporary knowledge workers might engage in OCB but not with IM motives.. According to her,. temporaries have little incentive to use IM because their stay in the organization is only temporary. On the other hand, it has been argued that there is a positive relationship since they might be motivated to engage in IM in order to obtain a permanent job (De Cuyper & De Witte, 2008; De Cuyper, Notelaers, & De Witte, 2009). Contingent workers emphasized the need for them to look good in order to be noticed in case there are future opportunities (Gay & Yeh, 2013). Thus impression management might be a motive for them to increase their level of OCB for better chances of renewal. Yun et al. (2007) concluded that IM is a useful approach to understanding citizenship behaviors and anyone might engage in impression management to attain a specific goal. Therefore, one’s engagement in OCB might be motivated by impression management motives and/or the quest to really be helpful or an exemplary worker. In the former case, OCB is performed more to create a favorable impression than for its true nature as people performing OCB are observed more favorably than others ( Bolino, 1999; Salamon & Deutsch, 2006). The researcher, to understand the influence of IM on the contingent workers OCB assumes that: Hypothesis 2: Impression management motives have a positive relationship with OCB of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 2a: Impression management motives have a positive relationship with the altruism of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 2b: Impression management motives have a positive relationship with conscientiousness behaviors of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 2c: Impression management motives have a positive relationship with attendance behaviors of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. 22.

(32) Choice of Contract The issue of contract of choice also called volition has consistently been brought up in research on temporary employment. Is has been found that employee behaviors vary when their working under contract is voluntary or not. As mentioned earlier, temporary workers has been categorized mainly as voluntary, involuntary, stepping stone (Tan & Tan, 2002) and noninvoluntary with no clear preference for voluntary or stepping stone motives (De Jong, De Cuyper, De Witte, & Bernhard-Oettel, 2009). The voluntary motive, according to Tan and Tan (2002) is considered as offering more freedom. The involuntary refers to the difficulty to find a regular job. The stepping stone relates to using temporary work as an experience which will help in gaining more experience, acquiring new skills, or in order to gain a regular job as soon as the opportunity arises. Workers in that latter category are either voluntary or involuntary with the main focus on achieving a particular goal (De Jong et al., 2009). Voluntary work choice has been described as bringing favorable outcomes to workers (De Cuyper et al., 2008) since it was chosen for its convenience, therefore meeting their needs. On the other side, people that were forced into temporary work because of no other options are not as much motivated therefore not experiencing it positively (Moorman & Harland, 2002). Preference for temporary work, according to Clinton et al. (2011), indicates how the temporary work is experienced and is therefore necessary to be taken into account for a better grasp on the worker’s past experiences and future expectations. To investigate the influence of choice of contract on OCB of contingent workers the researcher assumes working under contract involuntarily will be related to lower levels of OCB:. Hypothesis 3:. Involuntary choice of contract has a negative relationship with OCB of. contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 3a: Involuntary choice of contract has a negative relationship with altruism of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 3b:. Involuntary choice of contract has a negative relationship with. conscientiousness of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti.. 23.

(33) Hypothesis 3c: Involuntary choice of contract has a negative relationship with attendance of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti.. Time Remaining on Contract as a Moderator Bolino and Turnley (1999) pointed out that individuals may have IM motives for engaging in behaviors like OCB at strategic times like close to performance reviews (Leary & Kowalski, 1990). This would make a favorable impression on the supervisor who will eventually rate performance more favorably. Clinton et al. (2011) found that at the end of a contract, temporary workers may enhance their performance which might be for impression management purposes in order to secure an eventual continuation with the organization. As the contract approaches to an end, the worker is often uncertain of the renewal of the contract as it is known that they will be either terminated or renewed; it depends on the possibilities for renewal. if any and the. performance evaluation. These workers in Haiti are always wondering whether they will be renewed or not. This is a major concern uncovered in Gay and Yeh’s (2013) study. The ending period of the contract is therefore a crucial time which is considered as leading to a change, therefore experienced as threatening (Clinton et al., 2011). The worker will, at the end, know whether there will be termination or renewal of the contract. For that reason it can be inferred that, if it is important to be renewed, he/she will be doing what it takes to reach that goal. If it is believed that an increase in OCB will do, they will perform more OCB in order to stay in the organization. Time remaining on the contract consequently might have an influence on how contingent workers with IM motives engage in OCB particularly close to the renewal of contract. Thus, less time remaining may lead to a stronger relationship between IM motives and OCB.. To. understand this phenomena, the researcher assumes that time remaining on contract will have an impact on the relationship between IM motives and OCB. Hypothesis 4: Time remaining on contract negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and OCB with shorter time remaining strengthening the relationship between IM motives and the OCB of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. 24.

(34) Hypothesis 4a: Time remaining on contract negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and altruism with shorter time remaining strengthening the relationship between IM motives and the altruism of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 4b: Time remaining on contract negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and conscientiousness with shorter time remaining strengthening the relationship between IM motives and the conscientiousness of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 4c: Time remaining on contract negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and attendance with shorter time remaining strengthening the relationship between IM motives and the attendance of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti.. Expectations of Contract Continuation as a Moderator Another important factor to consider when studying contingent workers is the hope about future employment (Feldman, 2006).. Contingent workers are aware that their current. employment is for a specific duration and there is no promise of ongoing employment relationship with the employer. As the contract expires, there might be renewals as well as terminations. Consequently, these workers are not sure about their future since there is not any certainty relating to the eventual renewal of contract. When a worker for some reason thinks the contract is going to be extended, there is a decrease of that uncertainty which will eventually contribute to a better experience for the time being and would somewhat provide some satisfaction to the worker (Clinton et al., 2011). When contingent workers hope to have a contract renewed, they tend to have more positive job attitude and increase their performance (Feldman, 2006). An empirical study by Clinton et al. (2011) corroborates this idea since it was found that greater expectations of employment continuation was related to lower job insecurity, higher job satisfaction, higher in-role performance and higher organizational commitment. Since for many of the contingent workers the end of a contract might be a stressful period since they will have to start thinking about trying to find other jobs elsewhere and, as workers in Haiti generally want their contract renewed, it is assumed that they will increase their level of OCB as their. 25.

(35) expectations are lower to maximize their chances of having their contract renewed.. The. willingness of the workers to continue working in the organization might explain the possible influence expectation of contract continuation may have on the relationship between IMM and OCB.. The researcher assumes that expectation of contract continuation will moderate the. relationship between IMM and OCB.. Hypothesis 5: Expectation of contract continuation will negatively moderate the relationship between IMM and OCB such as negative expectation would strengthen the relationship between Impression management motives and OCB Hypothesis 5a: Expectation of contract continuation negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and altruism with negative expectation strengthening the relationship between impression management motives and altruism. Hypothesis 5b: Expectation of contract continuation negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and conscientiousness with negative expectation strengthening the relationship between impression management motives and conscientiousness. Hypothesis 5c: Expectation of contract continuation negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and attendance with negative expectation strengthening the relationship between impression management motives and attendance.. 26.

(36) CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This chapter will provide insight about the research framework, the hypotheses, the research procedure, data collection the sample, the measurements as well as the data analysis methods.. Research Framework Figure 3.1 illustrates the research framework which demonstrates the effect of perceived supervisor support, impression management motives and choice of contract on OCB. It also shows the moderating effect of time remaining on the contract as well as expectation of contract continuation on the relationship between some of the independent variables and OCB. There are three independent variables which are perceived supervisor support, impression management motives, and choice of contract. The moderators are time remaining on the contract and expectation of contract continuation. The dependent variable is organizational citizenship behavior. All of the variables used in this study have been already proposed in literature and the researcher tried as much as possible to use instruments that have already been tested as reliable and valid.. Perceived supervisor support. H1 +. Expectation of contract continuation H5 +. Impression management motives. Organizational Citizenship Behavior. H2 +. H4 -. Choice of contract H3 -. Time remaining on contract. Figure 3.1. Research Framework 27.

(37) Research Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: Perceived supervisor support has a positive relationship with contingent workers’ OCB in the nonprofit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 1a: Perceived supervisor support has a positive relationship with contingent workers’ altruism in the nonprofit sector in Haiti Hypothesis 1b: Perceived supervisor support has a positive relationship with contingent workers’ conscientiousness behaviors in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 1c: Perceived supervisor support has a positive relationship with contingent workers’ attendance behaviors in the nonprofit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 2: Impression management motives have a positive relationship with OCB of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 2a: Impression management motives have a positive relationship with the altruism of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 2b: Impression management motives have a positive relationship with conscientiousness behaviors of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 2c: Impression management motives have a positive relationship with attendance behaviors of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 3:. Involuntary choice of contract has a negative relationship with OCB of. contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 3a: Involuntary choice of contract has a negative relationship with altruism of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 3b:. Involuntary choice of contract has a negative relationship with. conscientiousness of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 3c: Involuntary choice of contract has a negative relationship with attendance of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. 28.

(38) Hypothesis 4: Time remaining on contract negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and OCB with shorter time remaining strengthening the relationship between IM motives and the OCB of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 4a: Time remaining on contract negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and altruism with shorter time remaining strengthening the relationship between IM motives and the altruism of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 4b: Time remaining on contract negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and conscientiousness with shorter time remaining strengthening the relationship between IM motives and the conscientiousness of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 4c: Time remaining on contract negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and attendance with shorter time remaining strengthening the relationship between IM motives and the attendance of contingent workers in the non-profit sector in Haiti. Hypothesis 5: Expectation of contract continuation negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and OCB with negative expectation strengthening the relationship between Impression management motives and OCB Hypothesis 5a: Expectation of contract continuation negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and altruism with negative expectation strengthening the relationship between impression management motives and altruism. Hypothesis 5b: Expectation of contract continuation negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and conscientiousness with negative expectation strengthening the relationship between impression management motives and conscientiousness. Hypothesis 5c: Expectation of contract continuation negatively moderates the relationship between IMM and attendance with negative expectation strengthening the relationship between impression management motives and attendance.. 29.

(39) Research Procedure This section explains the steps taken in order to develop this research. The procedure is as shown in figure 3.2. The researcher considered an exploratory study already done in the subject as a lead for the research questions. In order to come up with viable research questions, the second step for this study was a review of literature to develop the basis for the research. The findings from previous studies allowed the identification and a better framing for the research questions. The research questions and hypotheses were developed from literature review. Once the research variables have been clearly identified, a framework was developed in order to represent the relationships between them. From literature the researcher chose the measures to collect the data needed in order to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses. A pilot study was conducted to test initial reliability and validity of the questionnaire. After gathering data, a series of analysis was performed in order to answer the research questions. Afterwards, the researcher discussed the results, answered the research questions, suggested future research and concluded the study.. Identification of the research topic Literature Review Formulation of research questions and hypotheses Research framework Selection and design of research instrument Pilot study Collection of data Analysis of the data Conclusions and suggestions Figure 3.2. Research Procedure 30.