4. Teaching Implications
4.2. Contrastive Analysis
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4.2. Contrastive Analysis
Learning a second language usually involves the removal of some formed habits from a first language. Lai (2008) proposed that learners need to break some habits of their first language. One effective way is to compare and illustrate the similarities and differences between the first and the second language. Since locative inversion also exists in the first language, Mandarin, it is possible to compare the construction in the two languages and make use of the comparison in the teaching process. This
technique is known as Contrastive Analysis. Accordingly, the adoption of Contrastive Analysis may be helpful and effective for Mandarin speakers in terms of learning locative inversion as a second language construction.
From Contrastive Analysis, we can make general predictions about the possible errors. Teng (2004) and Huang (2007) agree that Contrastive Analysis is helpful to the second language learning since it can predict certain errors. James (1980:6) even further asserts that the main purpose of Contrastive Analysis is to provide ‘insights and implications for the second language teaching’.
As noted by Chen (2007), one important part of second language learning is the first language transfer (Seliger and Vago 1991) or cross-linguistic influence
(Sharwood Smith and Kellerman 1986). Contrastive Analysis believes in the effect of language transfer in second language learning—that is, the habits of the native
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language will be transferred to the second language. Some habits can hinder the second language acquisition while others facilitate it. Most often, the native habits different from those of the second language will usually cause difficulties in the learning of that language, which phenomenon is called negative transfer. On the other hand, the native habits similar to those of the second language usually facilitate the learning, which phenomenon is called positive transfer.
However, the current use of Contrastive Analysis in teaching has its limitations since the ways in which it is utilized are apt to contain subjective bias and focus too much on formal structure (Chen 2007). In order not to be subjectively biased, the comparison of the two languages should be carried out under the same framework (Krzeszowski 1990).17 That is why, in this paper, we compared the two languages within the same framework—from the four structure levels. Furthermore, we not only focused on formal syntax but also examined the discourse function grammar as well.
Although Contrastive Analysis is not a cure-all (Lai 2008) and not all language
production mistakes occur due to negative transfer, it systematically provides teaching materials and may make language learning more effective in a limited period of time.
Concerning the four structures in Chapter Three, locative inversion performs similarly in English and in Mandarin in terms of argument structure and information
17 Krzeszowski termed this as tertium comparationis. (Krzeszowski 1990:15)
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structure, but performs differently in terms of constituent structure and functional structure. Based on Contrastive Analysis, we may expect positive transfer in a-structure and information structure, but negative transfer in c-structure and
f-structure from the native language to the second language, that is, from Mandarin to English.
In the following section, this paper will adopt Contrastive Analysis to apply the theoretical grammar rules we mentioned in Chapter Three to language teaching. The similarities and differences will be organized and introduced to learners. The possible errors will be predicted and some real error data will be presented. In addition, the following discussion will take into account the basic teaching principles, including (a) proceeding from the general to details, and (b) from syntax and semantic to discourse (Lai 2008).18
4.3. Argument Structure
In argument structure, since locative inversion performs similarly in English and in Mandarin, we can predict a positive transfer from Mandarin to English. Thus, in illustrating teaching points, it will be suitable to supply Mandarin examples as well as
18 Lai (2008) indicates that senior high school students perform better in production than in comprehension when learning the second language, which violates the theory of “semantics first, syntax late” of Goodluck (1991). Considering this, the syntactic structure can be introduced to learners first, accompanied by semantics, and then the discourse function.
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Syntactically, locative inversion and its canonical form are different in the word order, which should be illustrated at the beginning of the teaching program. The unmarked form is the canonical form, characterized by the word order “NP V PP”, while the inverted form is characterized by the word order of “PP V NP”. The distinctions between the syntactic forms are the same in Mandarin and English.
Examples from both languages can be displayed simultaneously as (69) and (70).
(69) a. 一個 年輕人 坐 在 台上。
Apart from the syntactical difference in word order, the canonical form and inverted form carry slightly different information, and they are not free variations. In other words, the two forms have their own unique discourse functions and are not freely interchangeable. The canonical form is used when speakers seek to emphasize the action or the happening of the event, similar to the action of a film clip presenting a continuous motion. The inverted form is used to emphasize the description of the
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state, and is thus like a photo snap shot, presenting a stative and motionless state in a picture. The semantic distinction needs to be presented to learners. Take (70) for example; while (70a) focuses more on the motion, (70b) focuses more on the state.
Another challenge to the provision of instruction in the English locative inversion involves the type of verb that can undergo locative inversion. A similar claim is made by Joo (2003) in that one of the reasons why second language learners over-generalize or misuse a construction is that they have poor command of the kind of verbs that can undergo the construction, which results from their poor
comprehension of the argument structure. Therefore, it is necessary and helpful to illustrate the a-structure of a construction in second language learning. Learners must realize the concept that not all verbs can be compatible with locative inversion; that is, to undergo locative inversion, the verb has to meet some requirements—that the verb must be an intransitive verb or a passive verb, possess an inanimate noun phrase or an animate one with stative property, and take an obligatory locative phrase.
First, a locative inversion verb has to be an intransitive verb or a passive verb (Bresnan 1994: 77). Intransitive verbs include verbs of appearance/existence and verbs of posture/placement, such as “appear”, “stand”, “sit” and “live”, which undergo locative inversion commonly (Levin and Rappaport 1995: 220), as in (71).
(71) a. Over her shoulder appeared the anxious face of Mrs. Hume.
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Another candidate for a locative inversion verb is passive verbs, seen as (72).
(72) From this trench were recovered sacrificial burials and offerings dating to the final days of the Aztec empire.19
It is also necessary to notice the learners that the most unlikely candidate for locative inversion verb is transitive verbs due to their inherently carrying agent roles (Bresnan 1994, Levin and Rappaport 1995). The example in (73b) is common errors made by English learners; the transitive verb “bought” is not allowed to undergo locative inversion as shown in (73b).
(73) a. Jerry bought snacks in the shop.
b. * In the shop bought snacks Jerry. 20
Second, the requirement of a theme role in a locative inversion (Bresnan 1994, Huang and Her 1998, Her 2003) implies that a locative inversion verb usually possesses an inanimate noun phrase, as in (74a) and (74b). In other cases, an animate noun phrase is allowable if it has no intention and acts like a stative object, as the postposed theme in (74c), which obtains inanimate meaning for the stative property.
(74) a. Above the bed hang two framed pictures. (inanimate noun) b. * At the supermarket on Main St. shop local residents.21 (animate noun)
19 The source is from “Lord of the Wind: Aztec Offerings from Tlatelolco, Mexico.” 1989-1990.
Exhibit sign. Museum of Natural History, Denver. 18 October 1989-28 January 1990.
20 The data is collected from 2nd-grade senior-high students in Taiwan, written in English class.
21 The source is from Levin and Rappaport (1995: 222).
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(74) c. On the stage (*intentionally) sat a young man. (human with no intention)
The concept that the noun phrase tends to be inanimate should be instructed to
learners so as to prevent such an error as in (75), which is made by senior high school students.
(75) *In the classroom reads the student.22
Third, a locative inversion verb has to take an obligatory locative phrase instead of an optional one (Bresnan 1994: 80). In other words, the locative phrase cannot be deleted, or else the meaning of the sentence will be incomplete or ungrammatical. An error made by a senior-high student is presented in (76).
(76) *Along the river walks Alice.23
Likewise, the contrasting examples of grammatical and ungrammatical, and of the obligatory locative phrase and the optional one, should be presented for learners; see (77).
(77) a. Into the room walked Mike’s sister. (obligatory locative phrase)
b. (*)In the room walked Mike’s sister. (obligatory/optional locative phrase)
In (77a), the directional locative phrase implies its obligatory status in a-structure and thus is permitted to undergo locative inversion (Levin and Rappaport 1995). In (77b), there are two senses in this sentence: one is to view the PP “in the room” as a
22 The data is collected from 2nd-grade senior-high students in Taiwan, written in English class.
23 The data is collected from 2nd-grade senior-high students in Taiwan, written in English class.
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directional phrase, which is similar to (77a), while the other is to view the PP “in the room” as a description of existence. In the first sense, the directional phrase is taken as an obligatory complement and thus can undergo locative inversion. As to the second sense, the existence phrase is only an optional adjunct and thus is unable to undergo locative inversion.