Demographics Variations among Microaggression

Hypothesis 1 stated that there is a significant difference between international students’ demographic variables and perceived microaggressions. Seven out of nine additional hypotheses based on H1 were strongly supported (see Table 2 and 8).

Significant differences in perceived microaggression between gender (H1a), nationality (H1b), ethnicity (H1c), age (H1d), length of residence (H1e), marital status (H1f), and study program (H1i) were found. This section will discuss the result and compare it to the literature.

Gender. In this study, men perceived more microaggression than women, which conflicts with prior studies. For example, Nadal (2010) defined gender microaggression as brief and commonplace daily indignities which communicate hostile or sexist insults toward women, which implies that this type of microaggressions can be acknowledged only when the target group is women. In addition, almost all literature about gender microaggressions focus exclusively on women as victims (e.g., Capodilupo, Nadal, Corman, Hamit, Lyons, & Weinberg, 2010; Nadal, 2010; Owen, Tao, & Rodolfa, 2010;

Sue, 2010). In school settings, studies claim that female students and faculty members were more likely to report microaggression compared to their male counterparts (Boysen,

& Vogel, 2009; Ee, 2013)

However, there is also research, indicating that both men and women may suffer from sexism (as cited in Glick, Zion, & Nelson, 1988), that support my result. Chang (2006) pointed out that male social workers, as social work is stereotyped as a feminine job, were minorities of the occupation and were often treated poorly, such as being excluded from female victims of domestic violence or sexual assault. Moreover, male social workers were easier to be assigned to jobs which are dangerous or required physical strength. This phenomenon, which is to be deprived of certain types of occupation solely based on gender, was regarded as sexism and impacted both males and females (Chang,

2006; Cheng, 2004).

One potential explanation for the research result is gender stereotypes. Analyses of this study revealed that male international students reported being poorly treated as if they were aggressive or criminal. Also, they were often overlooked or dismissed at school. It is consistent with common stereotypes that men are often labeled as hostile and coarse while women are often associated with warmth and friendliness (Prime, Carter, &

Welbourne, 2009). Therefore, such stereotypes may make male students difficult for Taiwanese to approach. Another possible explanation is that male international students in Taiwan might be more aware of microaggressions or could have broader definitions of microaggressions than women.

Ethnicity, Nationality. In this study, it was found that White/Caucasian/European students experienced more microaggressions than overseas Chinese students, especially in the way of being treated as a foreigner, as they were criminal, and being stereotyped in an overly sexual manner. Similarly, students from European countries scored higher microaggression levels than those who came from Asian countries in terms of being sexually stereotyped and being treated as an outsider. In addition, students from American, African, and Oceania countries reported higher microaggression level than the students from Asian countries.

However, the research done in the United States always indicated that people of color, including Asians, African Americans, and Latino/a people, experienced microaggressions or racism from Whites (Constantine,2007; Nadal, Griffin, Wong, Hamit, & Rasmus, 2014;

Solorzano, Ceja, & Yosso, 2000). The situation in the U.S. might be due to that the culturally dominant race is White while people of color are the minorities; on the other hand, in Taiwan, Han/Chinese people dominate society, while Caucasians are minorities in terms of population and political power. Also, the appearance of Whites/Caucasians

stands out in Taiwan. Therefore, compared to overseas Chinese and Asians, it might be easier for White people to experience microaggressions by being treated as an outsider in Taiwanese society (Huang, 2008).

Some studies indicated White people in Taiwan have privilege. For example, Tsao study (2013) found that several international students pointed out that it seemed easier for White people to make friends compared to other foreigners in Taiwan. They also mentioned that it appeared that Taiwanese women want to date White people. It might be true that White students have more privileges than students from other ethnic groups.

However, the phenomenon might also be a form of stigma rather than a benefit to Whites.

Research has revealed that White/European people were often discriminated and stereotyped in an overly sexual manner due to their ethnicity/race. For example, when Lan (2011) investigated White immigrants in Taiwan, a female White mentioned that she was often regarded as a sexually promiscuous figure by Taiwanese men or elders based on their stereotyped image of Western women. Lan also pointed out that the association with feminism and sexual liberation in Western culture makes white women unsuitable wives and daughters-in-law compared to Taiwanese norms of domesticated femininity.

Moreover, research also mentioned the stereotype from Taiwanese people of Western men as bar hoppers and womanizers.

Another support for the result, that Whites students experiencing more microaggressions, is the data retrieved from responses to the open-ended questions in the survey. In the open question on this study’s questionnaire, One Caucasian student indicated that he was often treated as a foreigner and an outsider, and the lingering sense of alienation wasn't mitigated by language fluency or time spent here in Taiwan. Instead, they felt as long as an individual does not belong to the Han ethnic group, one can never be regarded as part of society. In addition, a German White man mentioned that he

constantly encountered the situation where Taiwanese assumed White people were all from the U.S. He also reported often being excluded from conversations. These experiences of microaggressions are consistent with the literature, which mentioned that Whites, due to their appearance, are treated as a foreigner or outsider no matter how long they stay in Taiwan (Huang, 2008).

Therefore, due to the advanced issues that White people might encounter, it is possible for White/Caucasian/European students to experience more microaggression than Asian students and overseas Chinese students.

Moreover, the result indicated that international students from American, African, and Oceania countries reported higher microaggression levels than the students from Asian countries. Since there is much diversity between American, African, and Oceania cultures, and there is no research specifically examining how differently these groups perceive microaggressions, it is somewhat unclear what might cause these three groups of people receive more microaggressions. Thus, future studies should compare these groups of people’s microaggressions level with people from Asian countries in order to clarify this result.

Age and Length of Residence. In this study, older students and students who had lived in Taiwan longer reported higher levels of perceived microaggressions. This finding is consistent with previous findings indicating that the experienced discrimination increases as the time that international students spent at their colleges increases (Poyrazli

& Lopez, 2007). The finding can be explained by the culture shock theory (Oberg, 1960), which points out that, after first few week or months that includes a sense of excitement and fascination, individuals start experiencing the negative aspects of the host culture. In addition, when they just came to Taiwan, their Mandarin proficiency may not be good enough to understand subtle slights or insulting verbal behaviors. However, as they

improve their language skills, their understanding of discriminatory behaviors is also likely to increase. Similarly, older students may be more experienced or mentally mature to recognize microaggressions (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007).

Marital Status. The data analyses of this study revealed that international students who were in a relationship (married or in committed relationship) reported more perceived microaggressions than those who were single or divorced. There are at least two potential explanations for this. One is that those students who were in a relationship experienced microaggressions from the couple or couple’s family, especially if their partner was Taiwanese. Compared to the students who have only local friends, students who are dating or married Taiwanese might have deeper and more frequent interactions with domestic people. Therefore, it might be easy for them to encounter issues of feeling excluded, invalidated due to language barrier, or disrespected. Lan (2011) mentioned that White students had difficulty in communicating with or had value conflicts with their dating partner or wife/husband. She also indicated that White husbands in Taiwan felt urged to work hard in their occupation in order to fight against local stereotypes from family-in-law. Therefore, future studies can examine whether local partners are a primary source of microaggression among married international students in Taiwan, and how the factor impacts their mental health.

The other explanation is that there might be an interaction between marital status and degree program participation. The majority of those who were in a relationship studied in a degree program, and this study revealed that the students who studied in degree programs perceived more microaggressions than those who studied in exchange student programs or LEP. Due to the current findings, future research is encouraged to examine the potential interaction of these two variables or other possible moderators on microaggression.

Study Program. The result of this study indicated that international students who studied in a degree program reported higher levels of microaggressions than those who studied in an exchange student program or a non-degree LEP. Since those students in a degree program required a higher level of language proficiency than those who studied in LEP or an exchange student program, it might be likely for them to feel inferior or ignored during classes. For example, Kim and Kim (2010) reported on international students who sensed an assumption of unintelligence from peers and professors due to their accents and/or because they tended to be silent in class discussions.

In addition, when studying in a degree program, the chance for those international students to interact with domestic students and other Taiwanese is much higher than exchange or LEP students. Therefore, they might easily experience inhospitality or even subtle slights. This notion is supported by the result of this study, in which international students from degree program perceived more microaggression than non-degree students especially in the way of feeling low achieving, overlooked, and dismissed by Taiwanese.

Also, Kim and Kim (2010) pointed out that international students from degree programs are prone to experience microaggressions from domestic students or professors, such as getting poor grades because of their lack of active participation in class, being excluded in social gatherings with domestic peers, and being ignored in hallways and classrooms.

Therefore, the result, in which international students who studied in degree programs reported more microaggressions than those who studied in exchange student program or LEP, is supported by various studies and explanations.