In order to examine the relationship between FOK judgment and neurocognitive
performance, correlations were calculated (see Table 6). Previous analyses revealed the
misses on the FOK “yes” judgment was sensitive in distinguishing HC from other
groups. Thus, special attention was paid on the relationships between misses on the
FOK “yes” judgment and three neurocognitive measures. Pearson’s r correlation was
performed. However, the relationship with neurocognitive measures did not examine in
the auditory-based FOK performance due to violation to the assumption of Pearson’s.
The misses on the “yes” judgment was negatively correlated with executive
function in both HC (r(30) = -.370, p = .044) and SCD (r(33) = -.420, p = .015); no
correlation was found in MCI (r(18) = .118, p = .641) and AD (r(7) = -.347, p = .445).
In addition to executive function, the misses was also negatively correlated with
immediate recall in HC (r(30) = -.572, p = .001). Contrary to the results of Souchay et
al. (2002), no correlation with memory score was found in all four groups.
Since literature has suggested that the aging-related decline of executive function
and episodic memory behaving similarly and being strongly correlated to each other
(McCabe, Roediger, McDaniel, Balota, & Hambrick, 2010), further correlations were
done to examine the relationship between executive function and other two measures.
Pearson’s r correlations showed that executive function measure was positively
correlated with immediate recall measure in both HC (r(30) = .782, p < .001) and SCD
(r(33) = .453, p = .008). A z-test was conducted (Eid, Gollwitzer, & Schmitt, 2017)
comparing the correlations in SCD and HC. The result was statistically significant (z =
2.119, p = .017, one-tailed) that the HC group showed a stronger correlation between
executive function and immediate recall when compared to SCD. Positive correlations
between executive function and delayed recall were also found in both HC (r(30) = .694,
p < .001) and SCD (r(33) = .409, p = .018). However, no significant correlation difference was reported (z = 1.588, p = .056, one-tailed).
(INSERT TABLE 6 HERE).
DISCUSSION
The present study examined memory monitoring performance in individuals with
SCD by applying the FOK paradigm in episodic memory tests, which examined
whether individuals with SCD exhibit differences across different modalities.
Individuals with SCD did not exhibit differences on the overall performance of
making memory-monitoring judgment as compared to healthy elders in the present
study. This finding supports a previous study wherein individuals with SCD judged
their memory performance no worse than did healthy elders (Perrotin et al., 2012).
However, the current study revealed the difference between individuals with SCD and
healthy elders while comparing them to patients with MCI and AD. While healthy
elders consistently exhibited significantly better memory monitoring performances than
did patients across domains, individuals with SCD only excelled on the auditory-based
test. That is, despite no statistical difference was reported between healthy elders and
individuals with SCD, our results also demonstrated insignificant differences between
individuals with SCD and patients with MCI and AD on visual-based test. A possible
explanation for the aforementioned results is that the subtle cognitive changes in
individuals with SCD were compensated for by other neurocognitive mechanisms (Erk
et al., 2011), leading to a decline that was not detectable when compared to healthy
elders (Koppara et al., 2015). This is in line with the cognitive decline depicted in the
study of Jessen et al. (2014); the slope of cognitive decline did not steeply drop during
the preclinical phase. In other words, our finding might suggest individuals with SCD
lying at the intermediate position between healthy elders and patients with MCI, as
Figure 1a showed a gradually increasing trend in the proportion of poor performance
from healthy elders, individuals with SCD, to pathological patients. Moreover, a recent
study has addressed the relationship between SCD and MCI from a different perspective.
It stated that the boundary between MCI and SCD is artificial in nature, and thus the
issue requires further study establishing an optimal distinction (Molinuevo et al., 2017).
Our results support the idea that auditory-based tests are better in the context of
detecting episodic memory deficits (Albert et al., 2011; Mortamais et al., 2017).
However, our discoveries in the visual-based test contradict previous findings of the
picture superiority effect in patients with AD and MCI (Ally, 2012; Ally et al., 2009;
Embree, Budson, & Ally, 2012). The reasons might be multifold. First, the visual
stimuli we used in this study were highly abstract, without concrete general concept that
was familiar to participants. The figure placed a high demand on information processing
(Shin, Park, Park, Seol, & Kwon, 2006), differing from concrete pictures used in
previous studies. Therefore, instead of an unequal performance caused by test modality,
it is possible that the difference was created by the level of abstraction embodied in the
information (Vallet et al., 2016). Recent research has also indicated that patients with
mild AD exhibit a relatively intact cued performance when the cues are focused on
distinctive conceptual information related to the target item (Deason, Hussey, Flannery,
& Ally, 2015). Second, our study mainly focused on the accuracy of monitoring
memory prospectively in relation to subsequent recognition. Despite a previous study
reporting that patients with MCI demonstrate a coherent performance on rating their
confidence and recognizing presented picture is new or old (Embree et al., 2012), our
results from the comparison with healthy elders provide evidence that MCI patients’
ability to deal with visual items is not superior than auditory item at memory monitoring.
Third, the tests selected for the FOK paradigm might have been of varying levels from
their cognitive substrates to test procedures. For example, RCFT requires attentive
learning during encoding phase (Shin et al., 2006) whereas Word list subtest of
WMS-III uses semantically-associated learning during encoding (Chang et al., 2018).
Thus, these memory tests require different cognitive abilities while processing provided
stimuli. Moreover, it is unlikely that these tests were comparable given the fact that they
use different approaches to measure the memory performance other than visual versus
auditory stimulus difference only. Therefore, the discrepant results between our study
and previous literature might need further studies to clarify given the possibility that
FOK performances in two selected tests might actually reflect different cognitive
components.
In comparison with healthy elders, further analyses suggest a discrepant
relationship between memory monitoring and neurocognitive functions in individuals
with SCD. Unlike the finding in patients with AD (Souchay et al., 2002), executive
function was negatively correlated with the overestimation of accuracy in both healthy
elders and individuals with SCD. This finding supports previous studies that found
memory monitoring performance measured by the FOK paradigm to be associated with
executive function in aging-related decline (Isingrini et al., 2008; Souchay & Isingrini,
2004). However, a negative correlation between the immediate recall score indicating
learning functioning and the accuracy overestimation of the FOK task was only evident
in our HC group. As the learning index indicated participants’ ability to learn new
information, reflecting a partial characteristic of episodic memory (Albert et al., 2011),
our results might suggest that individuals with SCD has a tendency to less use memory
resources in proceeding memory monitoring compared to healthy elders. Such findings
appear to be in line with a recent proposal suggesting that within-person variability
across cognitive domains is more valuable in predicting late-life cognitive decline
(Salthouse & Soubelet, 2014). However, further follow-up studies on this issue are
needed.
Several limitations were noted in the current study. First, our study used a
relatively small sample size in each group, particularly the patient groups. In order to
obtain sufficient information to examine differences between groups, it is advised that
future studies involve larger sample sizes. Second, we are aware of the debate about the
influence of recruiting sites for individuals with SCD (Perrotin et al., 2017;
Rodriguez-Gomez, Abdelnour, Jessen, Valero, & Boada, 2015). Thus, information
regarding depressive mood, medical records, and judgment regarding one’s own
memory decline were collected to eliminate possible confounding variables. Third, it is
likely that our results were biased by participants’ response preference in the FOK
paradigm. In other words, all participants tended to state “yes,” firmly assured of their
following accuracy, which the base rate for “yes” judgment was enlarged enough to
show variation. However, this tendency was observed across groups, and no significant
difference was reported between groups. Thus, this is unlikely to have led to the final
results. Another similar statistical limitation was from our data distribution. That is, the
selected auditory episodic memory test had items with high familiarity or high semantic
association to help memorizing. According to our data, it is clear that cognitively
normal participants almost excelled in every trial in the auditory-based test, leading to a
violation of the parametric assumption. This makes data analysis problematic as some
useful kits could not be performed. Fourth, our study requires extra caution while
explaining the FOK test results between SCD and HC given the fact that no direct
differences were observed. It is possible that the insignificance, other than the gradual
decline during the AD pathology, is rooted from the visual stimulus item lacking in
sensitivity differentiating SCD from HC. Future study on this issue is merited.
However, to our knowledge, the current study is the first to use an objective
method to examine how individuals with SCD monitor their memory. Despite the fact
that there was no significant difference in comparison with healthy elders, our results
suggest that individuals with SCD are at the intermediate position between normal
aging and pathological aging. This finding is in line with a recent hypothesis depicting
AD as a continuum (Jack et al., 2018). Moreover, a recent study simulated the AD
disease progression through data-driven model and found multifactorial interactions,
rather than linear cascade event, are responsible for the progression (Veitch et al., In
press). In addition, out study might provide an objective measure targeting individuals
with SCD who might be in risk for pathological change. Future follow-up study on this
issue is thus needed.
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