CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.2 Education system
2.2.1 Taiwanese Education System
國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
20
As defined by the Savary Law, universities in France are divided into scientific, cultural, and professional public institutions. Technological university institutes (IUT) created in 1966 are universities’ internal institutions with the mission to dispense technical and short-term training.
2.2 Education system
This second section seeks to provide an overview and introduction to the educational systems in Taiwan and France.
2.2.1 Taiwanese Education System
Taiwan (臺灣) commonly known as the Republic of China (中華民國) is a sovereign state of East Asia, whose territory now covers the island of Taiwan and other neighboring islands, including Kinmen, Matsu and the Pescadores Islands. As noted on its official website (MOE), all educational programs are regulated by the Ministry of Education which is in charge of national academic and educational administration. This includes education policy planning, legislation, and supervision of educational matters throughout Taiwan. In Taiwan, education is compulsory for girls and boysfrom primary school (6 years old) until junior high school (15 years old) since 1968. Most of the Taiwanese children attend kindergarten from the age of 3 to 6; this is a non-compulsory pre-school education which provides free education to children in financially disadvantaged families. The Taiwanese education system comprises of basic education which is compulsory (twelve years), senior high school (three years) and tertiary education (four-year undergraduate degrees, two years graduate studies and so on). Compulsory education includes primary school and junior high school, while senior secondary education covers senior vocational schools and senior high schools. Finally, higher education includes colleges, universities, institutes of technology as well as graduate schools and postgraduate programs.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
21
Figure 2.1Taiwanese Education System.
Reprinted from Education in Taiwan by The Ministry of Education Republic of China, 2015-2016, Retrieved from http://www.studyintaiwan.org/album/v4_publications/55fbd7943aa41.pdf Copyright
(August 2015) by Se Hwa Hu.
Twelve
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
22
Taiwan has experienced a rapid expansion of its higher education over the past 25 years,50catching up with its European and American fellows. This expansion is characterized by four several achievements: the increase of enrollments into tertiary education, the implementation of a multi-channel process which offers all students with equal opportunity to gain admittance into college, the enhancement of university administration and autonomy, and a significant decrease of pressure to attend tertiary education.51 All of these achievements testify to a successful massification of higher education in Taiwan. According to the MOE 2016 Education Statistical Indicators52, the number of students attending higher education has increased by 4.47% in 38 years and is likely to continue to grow over the next decade. Student numbers in universities increased from 299,414 students in 1976 to 1,092,102 students in 2000, before reaching 1,339,849 in 2014. The table below shows the increase of students enrolled in higher education in Taiwan since 1976.
50 Chuing Prudence Chou. (n.d.). Who benefits from Taiwan’s Mass Higher Education? Singapore: Springer.
Chapter 14. In Shin, Jung Cheol, Postiglione, Gerard A., Huang, Futao (Eds.).Mass Higher Education Development in East Asia. Strategy, Quality, and Challenges.
51 Chan, Sheng-Ju, and Liang-Wen Lin. "Massification of Higher Education in Taiwan: Shifting Pressure from Admission to Employment." Higher Education Policy High Educ Policy 28.S1 (2015): 17-33. Web.
52 2016 Education Statistical Indicators. (2016). Retrieved from http://english.moe.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=14504&CtNode=11430&mp=1
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
23
Figure 2.2 Students enrolled in higher education since 1976 Taiwan
Adapted from 2016 Education Statistical Indicators, by The Ministry of Education, Republic of China, Retrieved from http://english.moe.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=14504&CtNode=11430&mp=1
Copyright (2016) by MOE.
0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 1200000 1400000 1600000
STUDENTS ENROLLED IN HIGHER EDUCATION SINCE 1976 TAIWAN
students enrolled in higher education
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
24 2.2.2 French Education System
The French Republic (La République Française) commonly known as France is a sovereign state which includes territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories.France spans 632,834 square kilometers according to the INSEE (2008) and has a total population of 66,627,602 people53. As stated on its official website; all educational programs are regulated by the Ministry of National Education, officially called
“Ministère de l'Éducation Nationale, de la Jeunesse et de la Vie associative.” Yet, the administrative responsibility for education is present in every region and every department:
it is undergone by the Ministry of Education’s decentralized services. Its organization is structured around 17 academic areas, 30 academies and 97 institutions of departmental services of Education.54 From January 1st, 2016, 17 academic areas were in place to respond to the new regional framework created by the January 16th, 2015 law. As stated in the French Ministry of Education official website, a rector is appointed for each academic area, and guarantees the unity and the coherence of the State’s directives, especially in the fields of shared competences with the regional community. This category of organization enables the Ministry of National Education to maintain a coherent framework adapted to the management of the State’s first public service.
53 Demographic Record "Bilan Démographique 2015." Insee. Jan. 2016. Web. 10 Apr. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/detail.asp?ref_id=bilan-demo
54 "Les Régions Académiques, Académies Et Services Départementaux De L'Éducation Nationale."
Ministère De L'Éducation Nationale, De L'Enseignement Supérieur Et De La Recherche. Mar. 2016. Web.
11 Apr. 2016. Retrieved from http://www.education.gouv.fr/cid3/les-regions-academiques-academies-et-services-departementaux-de-l-education-nationale.html
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
25
Figure 2.3 Map of academic areas and academies in France.
Reprinted from The French Ministry of Higher Education and Research, 2016, Retrieved from http://www.education.gouv.fr/cid3/les-rectorats-services-departementaux-education-nationale.html. Copyright (June 2016) by French Ministry of Higher Education and Research.
Standardized testing is administrated by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Community Life, which is considered as the awarding organization for national qualifications at primary and secondary level. Higher education is managed by the Ministry
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
26
of National Education, Higher Education and Research, MENESR (le Ministère de l’Éducation Nationale, de l’Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche).
In France, education is compulsory for girls and boys aged 6 to 16 years old (since January 6th, 1959)55 residing in French territory, regardless of their nationality. Most French children attend kindergarten (La maternelle) from the age of 3 to 6; this is a non-compulsory pre-school education that provides free education to young students.56 Contrary to the first year (la seconde) of senior high school which is considered a compulsory general cycle and offers a similar syllabus for all students, the last two years are not mandatory and students are allowed to choose one of the three general streams; one of the eight technological streams, or one of the numerous streams of vocational programs.
These last two years also provide free education to the students.
55 "Les Grands Principes Du Système éducatif." Ministère De L'Éducation Nationale, De L'Enseignement Supérieur Et De La Recherche. May 2015. Web. 11 Apr. 2016. Retrieved from
http://www.education.gouv.fr/cid162/les-grands-principes.html
56 "Principe De Gratuité." Principes Généraux De L'éducation. Web. 11 Apr. 2016. Retrieved from http://eduscol.education.fr/cid48578/principe-de-gratuite.html
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
27
Figure 2.4 French Education System.
Reprinted from Onisep, 2013, Retrieved from http://mavoieproeurope.onisep.fr/en/initial-vocational-education-and-training-in-europe/france/ Copyright (2013) by Onisep.
France has experienced a slow but successful massification of its higher education over the past 40 years, closing the gap that it had with many OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries such as the United States, in regards
‧
to its population’s educational attainment57. The French education system can then count its achievements as: a significant rise in the proportion of young citizens graduating from secondary school, a successful mass expansion of higher education enrollments in the past 40 years, the creation of University Institutes of Technology (IUT) in 1966, and the development of higher education curricular pathways and grandes écoles. 58
In France, the most crucial aspect of this change has been the creation and development of teaching courses for professional purposes. The IUT (University Technology Institute) created in 1966, welcomed 117,400 students in 2015-201659. The University Institutes of Technology are part of the university system in France. According to their official website, there are 113 IUTs, attached to 80 universities. The IUTs offer students with the opportunity to prepare a two-year undergraduate technical diploma called a “Diplôme universitaire de technologie” or DUT. After being awarded their DUT, students have several possibilities, such as to enter the job market, to do a one-year professional degree, or to further their studies in a university or "école". In France, the number of students attending higher education has increased eightfold in 50 years and is likely to continue to grow over the next decade. The number of students enrolled in higher education rose from 310,000 in 1960 to 2,430,000 in 2013 and is forecasted to rise 2,600,000 by 2020 if current trends regarding the pursuit of studies in university continue60. Similarly, the number of students enrolling in University Technology of Institute (IUT) created in 1960 has reached a number of 116,000 in 2013. The table below shows the increase of students enrolled in higher education in France since 1960.
57 Education at a Glance 2014 retrieved from : https://www.oecd.org/edu/France-EAG2014-Country-Note.pdf
58 Education at a Glance 2014 retrieved from : https://www.oecd.org/edu/France-EAG2014-Country-Note.pdf
59 Les effectifs universitaires en 2015-2016 - ESR : Enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr. (2016, May).
Retrieved May, 2016, from http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid102275/les-effectifs-universitaires-en-2015-2016.html
University enrollment in 2015-2016, Ministry of National Education, Higher Education and Research
60 Laurence Dauphin. (2015, November). Higher education and research in France, Facts and Figure.
Retrieved from http://publication.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/eesr/8EN/EESR8EN_ES_08-changes_in_higher_education_over_the_last_50_years_growth_and_diversification.php.
‧
Figure 2.5 Students enrolled in higher education since 1960 France.
Adapted from Higher education and research in France, Facts and Figure, by Laurence Dauphin, November 2015, Retrieved from
http://publication.enseignementsup-
recherche.gouv.fr/eesr/8EN/EESR8EN_ES_08-changes_in_higher_education_over_the_last_50_years_growth_and_diversification.php.
The Grandes écoles are, as stated by the French Ministry of National Education,
"higher education institutions that recruits their students by a rigorous selection procedure and provides high level training". The Grandes Écoles are higher education establishments outside the main framework of the French university system. Selection to the Grandes Écoles are made through competitive written and oral examinations and are based on national ranking. On the contrary of universities, the Grandes Écoles do not have the obligation to accept every baccalaureate holders and are able to select students according to their own criteria. Candidates who successfully pass the examinations may enter the preparatory classes. Candidates to the national exams have usually completed two years of preparatory classes. The preparatory classes are accessible to baccalaureate holders and
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2013
Other institutions and courses 66 130 215 293 454 560 591
CPGE 21 33 40 64 70 80 84
STS 8 27 68 199 239 242 255
IUT (University) 0 24 54 74 119 117 116
Universities excl. IUT 215 637 804 1086 1278 1321 1384
0
Students enrolled in higher education in France since 1960 (in thousands)
Universities excl. IUT IUT (University) STS CPGE Other institutions and courses
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
30
acceptance is made according to baccalaureate score, senior high school grades and a portfolio (sometimes interviews are also required). In spite of it, some Grandes Écoles also offers an admission process to university students. The figure below briefly presents the process from the Baccalaureate to the Grandes Ecoles.
Figure 2.6 Process from the Baccalaureate to the Grandes Ecoles.
2.3 Secondary Education to Tertiary Education
2.3.1 Taiwan’s transition from senior high school to higher education
The abolishment of the principle “One examination determines your whole life”
(一試定終身) has opened the doors to a more accessible higher education system, starting with the implementation of a new system in 1994: “Admission through recommendation”
Baccalaureate
Preparatory classes
(litterature, sciences or economic streams) (2years)
Competitive entrance examination
Grandes Ecoles (3years)
Equivalent to a Master Degree.
‧
(CEEC). This system consisted on the recommendation of students by their senior high school, students failing to gain admittance through recommendation were then able later on to sit the Joint University Entrance Examination (JUEE) in order to enroll into higher education. With the aim of decreasing the emphasis on grades, in 2002 the Ministry of Education in Taiwan implemented a multiple pathway for college admission, allowing students to apply into college through three different processes. 61 As a result of several reforms, students are currently able to apply through The Stars Program (繁星推薦), The Personal Application (個人申請), and The Admission by Examination and Placement (登 記分發) (CEEC). The figure below gives a clear picture of College Admission System in Taiwan.
Figure 2.7 The College Admission Process in Taiwan.
Adapted from College Entrance Examination Center,
Retrieved from http://www.ceec.edu.tw/CeecEnglishWeb/E07Process.aspx.
61 The College Admission Process in Taiwan. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ceec.edu.tw/CeecEnglishWeb/E07Process.aspx
‧
As shown in the figure above, the college entrance examination center offers all students with the possibility to sit two examinations, which are the GSAT and the AST.
This mechanism not only allows students to choose which procedure they wish to undergo but also offers them the opportunity to sit a second examination (AST) if they failed the first examination (GSAT). Applicant may take the GSAT in the second semester of the third year of senior high school (January every year)62. This examination tests students’
knowledge in the following topics: English, Chinese, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, and Humanities through different types of assessment such as: multiple choice questions, writing questions, essay writing, and translation tasks (CEEC). Students are graded on a scale of 0 to 15 for each subject which creates a maximum total score of 75.63 Total score of students will determine their eligibility to enroll in a specific university, in addition to college screening test or recommendation by high school.
Non-attendance in the admission by application and recommendation, failure to gain admittance into college, or dissatisfaction regarding the GSAT score are three reasons as to why the students sit for the AST in July. The table below shows the GSAT two-day exam schedule.
Table 2.1 GSAT two-day examination schedule. (January 22nd and 23rd).
January 22nd Chinese
Adapted from 大學學科能力測驗, by Wikipedia, 2016, Retrieved from https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/大學學科 能力測驗
62 The College Admission Process in Taiwan. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ceec.edu.tw/CeecEnglishWeb/E07Process.aspx
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
33
Students who sit the GSAT are able to pursue two processes in order to enroll in university. The Stars Program (繁星推薦) introduced in 2007 addresses the gap between urban and rural areas and supports disadvantaged students from remote areas.64According to the college entrance examination center, the Stars Program uses grade point average from the first two years of high school as the admission criteria in addition to the GSAT score that is required by the college the student wishes to enroll in. A quota is established for high schools who wish to recommend their students, only few students can then undergo this procedure, and then be a part of this program.
Admission by application was introduced in 1998 and expanded in 2000 (CEEC) in view of providing all students with the opportunity to apply to the university of their choice. Students’ eligibility is determined by their performance in the GSAT which guides them to apply for specific colleges through porfolios, interviews and additional examinations. 65
The second examination offered to students is the AST, which is provided to students who failed to gain admittance through the aforesaid process. There are several topics within this examination, but students are allowed to decide which topics they wish to test according to the requirements of colleges they are interested in. Topics as refered by the CEEC website are: “Chinese, English, Mathematics (for science and engineering majors), Mathematics II (for humanities and social science majors), Geography, History, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Civics.” In opposition to the GSAT, each AST subject’s tests are worth 100 points and include multiple choice questions, short answers questions, problem-solving, response writing, essay writing, and translation tasks. 66
64 Education in Taiwan 2013-2014. (2013, September). Retrieved from
https://stats.moe.gov.tw/files/ebook/Education_in_Taiwan/2013-2014_Education_in_Taiwan.pdf
65 The College Admission Process in Taiwan. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ceec.edu.tw/CeecEnglishWeb/E07Process.aspx
66 Advanced Subjects Test (AST). (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.ceec.edu.tw/CeecEnglishWeb/E07Process_AST.aspx
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
34
As explained above, the admission by examination and placement process is offered to students who failed to gain admission through the Stars program or the application process. But not only, this program is also provided to students who didn’t or couldn’t take part in the GSAT or more often who were dissatisfied by their GSAT score.
Students taking part to the admission by examination and placement process must take the AST. The AST score is the sole factor of students’ distribution into colleges and departments. Still, they can fill out a preference list where they indicate their desire and preferences.
2.3.2 French College Admission Process
It was Napoleon Bonaparte (Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, and again in 1815) who created the Baccalaureate that we know today.67 In 1808, Napoleon re-established the old-regime universities that the Revolution had abolished (Theology, Law, and Medicine) and created two new faculties (Arts and Sciences). By decree of March 17th, 180868, he restored the " Master of Arts" which he called "The Baccalaureate." It was the first university degree which allowed students over sixteen years old to pass oral examinations on Greek and Latin authors, rhetoric, history, geography, and philosophy.
The first session was held the following year and had 31 graduates, mostly from the
“bourgeoisie.” The Bachelor of Sciences was then created in 1852.69
Contrary to the GSAT and the AST, the Baccalaureate has the double feature to put an end to high school studies and to open access to higher education (as it is considered to
67 Napoléon, fondateur du baccalauréat. (2014, May 4). Retrieved from
http://www.napoleon1er.fr/2014/05/napoleon-fondateur-du-baccalaureat/ Napoleon, founder of the baccalaureate.
68 17 mars 1808 : Organisation de l’Université impériale. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.canalacademie.com/ida2883-17-mars-1808-organisation-de-l-Universite-imperiale.html March 17, 1808: organization of the Imperial University
69 Virginie Rivière. (2013, June 14). Bac : Histoire, origines, réformes... Ce qu'il faut savoir. Retrieved from http://www.linternaute.com/actualite/education/bac-histoire-origines-reformes.shtml Baccalaureate:
History, Origins and Reforms.
‧
be the first university diploma)70. Success in this examination (average of 10/20) is almost mandatory to access higher education. The Baccalaureate is considered in France as the first university degree while the graduation certificate is an academic qualification awarded for the completion of high school. By obtaining this graduation certificate, students are deemed to have completed their basic schooling. The French secondary school graduation certificate (CFES – Le Certificat de fin d’études secondaires) can only be obtained by taking the Baccalaureate and being awarded a minimum total score of 871. Students who fail to acquire this score have to repeat their last year of senior high school and to re-sit the Baccalaureate.
The French higher education system only possesses a single admission channel which is called the Admission Post Bac72. Students who wish to enroll into higher education must go through this procedure. The APB process begins every year at the end of January (this year; January 20th, 2016) and ends every year at the end of March (this year; March 20th, 2016). According to the Ministry of Higher Education, the APB is a mandatory step in the university admission process.
This procedure expects students to apply to college in regards to their aspirations since a preference list is solicited to distribute students into institutions that might fit both their academic knowledge and ambition. Admittance into public universities of all holders
This procedure expects students to apply to college in regards to their aspirations since a preference list is solicited to distribute students into institutions that might fit both their academic knowledge and ambition. Admittance into public universities of all holders