LITERATURE REVIEW - The Effect of Cultural Orientations, Academic Motivation and University Cul

The following chapter is a summary, description and analysis of the literature pertinent for the variables selected for this research. The researcher presents a review of the existing theories, works, and research done on the topics of cultural orientations, academic motivation, university culture and academic satisfaction. The primary goal is to support theoretically the relationship among the variables of this academic research.

Internationalization in Taiwan’s Higher Education

The number of incoming international students has increased dramatically, and this is due to the efforts from the Taiwan Ministry of Education (MOE) to increase the number of international students (Chang & Lee, 2007). The basic development of the country’s knowledge system through intercultural interactions appears to be the driving force but because of the shift towards globalization, many nations, are being pushed to open their education systems to an increasing number of students. A study by Knight (2002) points out four main advantages and reasons behind the internationalization of education in countries: the first is the political standpoint to help developing countries in the formation of their identity through globalization; the second is the economic rationale , where the country is exporting educational products which allows additional funds and workforce: the third is the academic aspect in which a nation would excel in educational standards and awards: the last aspect is the social benefit of promoting their culture.

For many reasons, such as: an optimal Chinese learning environment, the advantage of learning traditional Chinese characters, scholarships, and recommendations from friends, many international students are choosing Taiwan. Other aspects that have encouraged this trend are Taiwan’s academic, political, economic, social, and educational environment (Chuang, 2012; Han, 2009). Although there has been such an increase in enrollment from international students, there is a high competition globally and increasingly high in Asia, which demands a high level if education standards.

The increment in the number of international students has transformed Taiwanese school campuses in general, into more diversified communities. This type of community requires students to possess cross-cultural competence to work and live with people from diverse cultural backgrounds (Chen, 2015). Hofstede (2001) expressed that this competence can be taught and

defined it as an array of congruent attitudes, behaviors, and policies that converge in a system, or among professionals and supports effective working or functioning in cross-cultural situations (Cross, Bazron, Dennis, & Isaacs, 1989). In order for Taiwan to succeed in this competition and continue in the ranks of best universities in Asia and the world they must prepare their students and future professionals to meet these requirements of cross cultural environments. The study of the cultural dimensions on students is relevant, since this would lead to the understanding of different values and worldviews.

Chen’s research (2015) in Taiwanese universities highlights the importance of teachers as well as families in the cross- cultural practices, faculties and students are situated in the frontline as these ambassadors.

Academic Motivation

Motivation Definitions.

In the past, there has been a great amount of studies and research done, pertaining motivation, countless theories describing the typology and dimensions behind motivation. Here is presented a summary of the most important theories and models created in the table below.

Table 2.1.

Motivation Theories Maslows’s Hierarchy

of needs

Two-factors Theory McClelland’s Theory of needs Note. Adapted from “Chapter 7 Motivation: from concept to application,” by S. Robbins, T. Judge, B. Millet, and M. Boyle. 2016, p. 250, Organizational Behavior, Copyright 2016 by Pearson Education, Inc.

From this data, we are going to use the definitions for intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as the theory of needs declares we can either have needs for achievement which is the external motivation or needs for affiliation which is internal motivation. As the expectancy theory demonstrates as well, we can either be focused on performance rewards, which is the extrinsic focus or to work towards personal goals which are the intrinsic motivators. Vallerand et al., (1992) have identified three types of intrinsic motivation within the academic context as intrinsic motivation to know, to accomplish, and to experience stimulation.

Academic Motivation and Higher Education.

According to Lin, McKeachie and Kim (1999), one of the objectives of higher education is to increase motivation for life-long learning, hence the teachers’ job would be to motivate intrinsically. Yet, other studies provide data for this theory and have shown that students have various learning goals.

A plethora of dichotomies have been proposed to explain students’ goals and motivation, probably one of the first of these terms is intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. For intrinsic motivation, college students want to excel in expert knowledge in their fields. Furthermore, for extrinsic motivation they want to get good grades and demonstrate their competence, a performance goal. Performance goals and mastery could play interdependent roles in motivating student learning, which indicates that there isn’t necessarily a division between them. Intrinsic motivation (IM) suggests that one engages in a behavior or activity for internal reasons such as enjoyment (Tóth-Király et al., 2017). Three types of academic IM can be observed according to Vallerand et al. (1992): 1. IM to know alludes to gaining new knowledge about a given topic. 2.

IM toward accomplishment is related to the aim of overcoming goals or surpassing oneself. 3.

Experiencing stimulation where one is rewarded by the experienced subjective sensations of the activity. The study presented by Lin et al. (2003) conducted with the Motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MLSQ), concluded that teachers do not need to eliminate motivation for good grades in order to achieve both cognitive and lifelong learning goals. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) analyzed that the “impact of college is largely determined by individual effort and involvement in the academic, interpersonal, and extracurricular offerings on a campus” and the best predictors of the students’ successful graduation are academic preparation, motivation, and student engagement.

In another research by D’lima, Kitsantas, and Winsler (2014) performance goal orientations were negatively associated with grade point average whereas mastery orientation, intrinsic, and extrinsic motivation were positively associated with academic performance. This researcher affirms that understanding the early student motivation, the freshman, may aid in giving instruction in a way that will support students’ motivation to successfully finish their college education. This study which also used the MLSQ as measure for intrinsic and extrinsic motivation relates that intrinsic motivation has a positive significant relationship with lecture engagement, SAT scores, mastery goals, academic performance, and meaningful cognitive engagement (Church, Elliot, &

Gable, 2001). The conclusions from this study suggest that there are important cultural differences in students with potential for future research.

Academic Motivation and International students’ satisfaction.

Usually studies on international student focus on their cultural adaptation and cultural intelligence but their motivation is equally important. Wiers-Jenssen (2003) recognizes intrinsic motivation as the main factor for studying abroad, while Kitsantas (2004) describes how students’

motivations affect their intercultural learning. These results demonstrate how students with motivations such as development of cross-cultural competence score higher on cross-cultural skills and global understanding after their stay abroad (Holtbrügge & Engelhard, 2016). To date, research has proved the hypothesis that students’ motivation to going abroad can vary in its degree of self-determination (Chirkov, Vansteenkiste, Tao, & Lynch, 2007). When students decide to study abroad independently, they will be more likely to learn and modify their actions, which produce more positive result for their satisfaction (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Therefore, the intrinsic motivation on studying abroad is based on the perception that this is exciting, interesting and satisfying, and the commitment to the location comes from an internal integrated regulation (Holtbrügge & Engelhard, 2016). As, Deci and Ryan (1985) presented, to learn the culture and language of the host country is considered as intrinsic motivation, compared with other motivations for studying abroad, the need for autonomy, relatedness, and competence is the highest. The experience of studying abroad is positive for both the foreigner and the local, since they will find them approachable and interested in learning about their culture, which in turn results into higher CQ, academic satisfaction and better performance.

Hypothesis 1: Academic motivation has no effect on academic satisfaction.

15 Dimensions of Academic Motivation.

There are countless theories and philosophies supporting motivation and for this study we will use Pinder’s observation (1988) where he defines motivation as “a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being to initiate behavior and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration”. Which assumes that our behavior is determined by both internal and external forces. From the same line of thinking we can adopt the self-determination theory which supports this dichotomy as well by Deci and Ryan (1985). According to Akoto, Hough and Mosley (2014) it is relevant to study the higher education students’ academic motivation because it is essential in the academic setting, nevertheless research examining the cultural values as determinants of motivation has focused solely in the work context, with very limited study in the academic context. According to Lin and McKeachie (1999), one of the objectives of higher education is to increase motivation for life-long learning, hence the teachers’

job would be to motivate intrinsically.

The six dimensions adapted from Vallerand et al. (1992) have the three types of intrinsic motivation within the academic setting as intrinsic motivation to know (IM-to know) defined as

“performing an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction that one experiences while learning, exploring or trying to understand something new” (Vallerand et al., 1992).; intrinsic motivation to accomplish (IM-to accomplish) defined as “engaging in an act for the pleasure and satisfaction involved when attempting to accomplish or create something (Vallerand et al., 1992) and intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation (IM-to experience stimulation) involves activities that engender stimulating sensations.

As well as three types of external motivation adapted from Deci (1975) and Deci and Ryan (1985, 1991) in the academic setting are: identified regulation, occurs if one’s behavior becomes valued and judged to be important for the individual; introjected regulation, refers to the internalization of the reasons for an action, and external regulation involves acts that are regulated through external means like rewards and constraints.

Cultural Orientations

The definition for culture is so broad with a plethora of concepts from numerous authors and researchers therefore for the purposes of this study the term cultural orientations will be adapted from Geert Hofstede’s five value dimensions of national culture. He pointed out that

culture is a collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another (Hofstede, 2001).

In the late 1980s Hofstede identified what he called the four dimensions of cultural differences, which he labeled within a large-scale study of employees in 40 different countries for the company IBM. The comparison of nations was developed in terms of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism and masculinity. There is a recent addition to these orientations, which are related to traditional values, long term and short-term orientation; these will not be measured in this research.

Culture and International students.

International students come from nations with widely different cultural practices and the teaching and learning strategies adopted in classrooms can conflict with the learning strategies from the foreign learner. Students, who come from different nations, will logically display a distinct culture. Differences in students’ attitudes or learning styles can be explained more comprehensively if the students’ culture of origin is taken into consideration. People are not born with a culture, culture is learned. (Stull & Von Till, 1995). For this reason, there is an increasing need for professors to be aware about the cultural atmosphere into which their teaching is placed (Thaman, 1993). Teachers have a main role into the cross-cultural education and training for students.

While there are many research studies relating to culture and education generally (Atwater, 1993, 1996; Maddock, 1981), in comparison there is little research examining the interaction that occurs between students' culturally sensitive learning environment and their learning. In the different universities, the faculty needs to take into consideration how different learning conditions should be used according to the students' different perceptions of these culturally sensitive factors of their learning environments. The adaptation students have to go through when introduced into a new culture can be stressful, and consequently affect their satisfaction and level of performance.

Cultural Orientations at Country level.

Hofstede’s index has been popular for various reasons: in first place, the cultural orientations fully comprise and extend major conceptualizations of culture developed through many years. Through a comprehensive analysis of culture literature, Clark (1990) claimed that the different typologies of culture are very similar, and their orientations are well captured in Hofstede’s typology (Dong, 2009).

The research made by (Dong, 2009) analyzes the cultural orientations from Hofstede and Bond into understanding the Western cultures and China. This researcher emphasized on the importance of cross- cultural competence and training, especially in the aspect of communication because of historical issues between these two cultures. This researcher found that China in general, stresses the social role of the group, while Western culture emphasizes individuality. This is only one of the many dimensions that differentiate these two cultures and that demonstrate how the cultural distance between two nations can hinder a business alliance (Johanson &

Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975; Malik & Zhao, 2013). Therefore, cultural distance is the principal forthcoming variable for the success of the business or learning alliance (Lenartowicz & Roth, 2004; Westwood & Posner, 1997) and its stability (Meschi & Riccio, 2008). If we assume that knowledge is context dependent, cultural distance between exchange partners can also delay knowledge transfer.

Cultural Orientations at Individual level.

In the past, the definition of national cultural orientation has been very useful for the study of nations and societies, after Hofstede introduced his index. Nevertheless, blindly looking at national culture and using that as a measure to target individual consumers may not work. (Donthu, Lenartowicz, & Yoo, 2011). Business strategies would be most effective when a measure at individual level is developed and applied (Farley & Lehmann 1994).

In most studies culture is measured at the national level, but whether an individual displays a cultural dimension consistent with his or her national culture needs to be measured. For example, according to study made by Dong, (2009), the Chinese culture is more collectivist than the Western culture, but it is important to measure whether a Chinese student would have the same inclination towards collectivism, or whether a western student would have less inclination towards it. This concern is more important nowadays with globalization, especially in universities which now consist of heterogeneous population with different cultural backgrounds. The reflection of culture at the individual level is more important and relevant for managerial conditions as well (Kamakura

& Mazzon, 1991; Kamakura & Novak, 1992). In their study Donthu, et al., 2011 also mentioned researchers can avoid the ecological fallacy that occurs when ecological or country-level relationships are interpreted as if they are applied to individuals, hence they created the CVSCALE—Individual Cultural Values Scale. These scale benefits researchers who deal with

individual consumers across cultures, like the international students, hence this questionnaire was adapted to fit this academic research, and measure the cultural orientations.

Cultural orientations and Academic Motivation.

In todays globalized and fast- paced world, the motor behind peoples’ motivation is very valuable for any business. In the education business, the main goal is to anticipate what the source of the students’ internal motivation is. Adding to the challenges that this endeavor already poses, we have the international student’s cultural background, which proposes another challenge. Most of the research done between these two variables has been on the labor sector, since it has been of more interest than the educational sector. Following Hofstede’s cultural index, there are various researches studying these variables on several motivation theories, such as the expectancy theory among others. (Dorfman & Howell, 1988; Emery & Oertel, 2006; Erez & Earley, 1987; Lam, Chen, & Schaubroeck, 2002). A holistic literature review done by Gibson, Kirkman, & Lowe (2006) analyzing the influence of the cultural dimensions on other variables proves its relationship to motivation among others.

For the purpose of this study we can observe a research by Akoto, Hough, and Mosley (2014) in which the relationship between individual level cultural orientations, by Hofstede, and the multi-dimensions of academic motivation based on self-determination theory, were tested. The result of this study developed with international business students shows that low power distance orientation is positively related to intrinsic motivation and the population exhibited low masculinity. Previous research by Huang and Vliert (2003) also found a significant relationship between intrinsic motivation and power distance at the individual level. As for the national cultural dimensions, prior studies claimed that individuals in low-power distance societies are more empowered to perform successfully than those in high power distance societies (Dimitrov, 2006)

Hence, measuring international student’s cultural perceptions and the relationship with academic motivation will increase our comprehension of student’s motives and drives; we need to know where our students come from to understand where they are going next.

Hypothesis 2: Cultural orientations have no effect on academic motivation.

Cultural Orientations and Academic Satisfaction.

Although cultural orientations are not a new term, the relationship with academic satisfaction has not been studied as much as with other factors. Therefore, we will use job satisfaction from other research to explain the relationship between these variables. A quantitative study developed in Finland, the Philippines, Belgium, and the US, collectivism was found positively related to team members' job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Gibson et al., 2006). Reviewing the difference between measuring individual or national level; at the individual level, collectivism was positively linked to job satisfaction (Kirkman & Shapiro, 2001), whereas, at the national level the relationship was negative (Cooper, Sparks, & Spector, 2001).

In the area of international education, a study by Feldman and Bolino (2000), among a sample of United States MBA students in overseas internships: declared that cultural distance, or the difference among the power index for nations, was not related to internship satisfaction, opportunities to learn or further develop skills, or organizational commitment.

At the organizational level, Dorfman and Howell (1988) determined that cultural socialization mediated the relationship between both subordinate performance and satisfaction and leadership in a sample of Taiwanese, US, and Mexican managers working in Mexico and Taiwan.

Finally, Lam, Schaubroeck, and Aryee (2002) found that lower power distance has a strong relationship among job satisfaction, performance, and absenteeism.

Hypothesis 3: Cultural orientations have no effect on academic satisfaction.

Cultural Orientations and Organizational culture.

In this research, we will focus on measuring the cultural orientations from an individual which derive from the persons’ national culture. We will also address the relationship between the cultural orientations and the university’s culture. So as to not confuse these terms one of the main differences between them is that organizational cultures are susceptible to change; whereas, national culture is a “complex and deep-rooted phenomenon that in most management situations must be taken as a given” (Jaeger, 1986).

The analysis between these two variables has proven to be relevant to organizational scientists, since the person - organization fit has a myriad of implications. One of them being that people tend to be happier satisfied when they are in environments that match their specific needs

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