Cognitive Reality: Content

Through the establishment of a modern state apparatus and a series of

modernization policies the Japanese changed the Taiwanese society. At the time of the

84

Japanese takeover there was no single community on the island. I argue that the Japanese policies created a single community in Taiwan.

Before 1895 I argue that there was not a single community in Taiwan. There was not a functioning state. In addition the lacking links of communication between the different groups, contributed to a series of small ethnic communities instead of a single community. In the most basic sense Max Weber defines a state as a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. Based on the Weber’s definition I argue that the Qing dynasty in Taiwan was not a modern state. As established earlier it is evident that the state apparatus in Taiwan was severely lacking. From the 16^th century Chinese officials were not able enact prohibitions and hinder the emigrant settling on the island. The government officials were further described as incompetent and corrupt. Because of the lacking governance the population had a general disrespect of law. Under the prevailing conditions local

communities established local rule based on ethic ties and surname affiliation. As Wang argues: Due to the lacking functionality of Qing general official code for Taiwan. “Local customs, unofficial sources of law in imperial China, therefore played an important role in settler society in Taiwan. In addtition before 1895 local strongmen in effect controlled their own kingdoms within the Qing governmental system with social organizations and the possibility to create policies and impose punishments upon their members. Further, the Qing government did not establish a proper system for tax base and tax collection.

The taxation levels in Taiwan were considerably higher than those in the mainland. As a result Taiwanese landowners concealed a number of their fields in order to pay a lower amount of taxes. Officials knew about the fraud, but did not enforce changes due to fear of uprisings. Qing Taiwan it is evident that the Qing government did not have monopoly of violence. Due to the lacking functionality of Qing general official code for Taiwan.

“Local customs, unofficial sources of law in imperial China, therefore played an important role in settler society in Taiwan” (Wang, 2000:110)

In addition to the lacking governance the lacking modernization hindered a single community on the island. Before 1895 the majority of the population on Taiwan was uneducated, less than half percent of the Taiwanese population knew how to read and write. The population had limited opportunities for travel or social movements. Roads

85

connecting major cities with surrounding villages were in in many cases just 30 cm wide and not paved. People relied on walking or single wheeled sedan chairs for transportation.

The average Taiwanese did not have the ability to travel far beyond their native villages.

The building of a telegraph was started during Liu Min-quans modernization period, however the line never reached operational state. Postal service between the north and the south of the country took more than one week. As a result In addition to missing means of communication the different groups of Taiwanese spoke different languages unintelligible for each other. The economy on the island was neither developed. The commodity prices fluctuated greatly from one part of the island to the other.

Compared to the previous rulers, the Japanese certainly was a modernized state.

As one of the key principles in a modern state the Japanese established rule of law.

During the military quests after 1895 local militias and strongmen would revolt against the Japanese. The revolts were based in a similar fashion to revolts during the Qing period. The consequences of an uprising illustrate the difference between the old and new regime. Where the Qing rulers would send other ethnic groups to break down the

uprisings, the Japanese sent trained soldiers. The strongmen with their militias were categorized as bandits and punished by death. After pacifying the area. The Japanese rulers installed a modern day police force. As previously discussed through policing and modern intuitions the Japanese monopolized violence and laws on the island. The new laws based on Japanese legal principles influenced by western law. In the new system all inhabitants were responsible towards the law. (Wang, 2000:107)

At the economic level the Japanese established a new tax base and a functioning collection system. The land surveys discovered a revenue yielding area much larger than reported. The Qing regime had registered 361,447 chia of land on the island. The

Japanese surveys found the number to be 777,850 chia. More than double the amount of land registered under the Qing government. As a result, Taiwanese had to pay taxes for a larger portion of their land. In addition the Japanese changed the landowner structure on the colony.(Yao, 2006:51)After establishing a functioning government the Japanese started a process of modernization and education on the island. The railroad connecting the North and South of the island through the east coast was opened. From 1898 to 1906 the Japanese build 5,600 km of roads six feet wide, 2,900km of roads wider than 6

86

feet, And 50 km of roads 24 feet wide. In addition they finished the railway linking Keelung and Kaohsiung and installed telegraph lines across the island. (Shozo, 2006:74) The new communication links made travel time between the different areas much shorter.

The links created new standards of mobilization for the Taiwanese as it was possible to work in the cities without being disconnected from their native villages. A separate feat of the modernization was the establishment of a modernized economy after capitalist

principles. The new economy created jobs in the cities and led to urbanization. In the urban environment, people from all corners of the island would live and work together.

The communication links made it possible for the people to travel home. By interacting and connecting, the Taiwanese started to develop into a single community.

Over time, the Japanese brought education to the masses. Before 1895 less than a half percent of the people could read. By the 1944 of the school aged population was enrolled in schools. As discussed above the schooling and modernization created new norms for sanitation and helped eradicate diseases previously spread over the island. In addition the education also changed the status of women in society. Through school the majority of people became literate. Japanese became the lingua franca for Taiwanese people from different parts of the island. At the same time as people learned the read, mass media was introduced to the island. The newspapers were part of the modernization process of popularizing modern ideas and bringing news to the people. An important change happened around 1898-1900 as the newspapers went public. The right to print newspapers was given to Japanese commerce that printed newspaper according to market logic. As the newspapers became public the newspapers sought to attract Taiwanese readers. In order to attract readers, the papers would address public opinion including the criticism of the government. The newspapers became important tools in criticism of the colonial government. (Liao, 2006: 83) Through the newspapers the Taiwanese public got news and information of events happening across the island and abroad. Through

contributions such as editorials and articles Taiwanese were able to express themselves and have their expression read by fellow citizens. Thus creating public sphere and civil society on the island. Overall the new functioning government combined with the physical and intellectual modernization, changed society on Taiwan from a divided agricultural society to a modern single community.

87 3.4.1. Cognitive Reality: Contestation

The Japanese colonial rule established Taiwan as a single community for the entire Chinese population. Yet the different layers of society experienced different colonial realities. The colonial elites responded positively to prospect of modernization.

They accepted the offer of education as a way of improving their lives. Through the Japanese education the elites were influenced by Japanese culture and customs. In the initial phases of colonial rule it was only the elites and urban population that was included in the Japanese education. The Japanese education was aimed at changing the norms and culture of the Taiwanese.

The goal of the new education was to train the student for life and work in the new world and to making them unquestionable loyal to Japan. The education was to

“transform a segment of the traditional China into an integral part of modern Japan”

(Tsurumi, 1977:11). In order to do so the Japanese educators took advantage of existing structures and used them to advance the Japanese agenda; classic traditions that urged loyalty and obedience to one's superior were strengthened and areas connecting Taiwan with the mainland were to be played down or forbidden. In order to incorporate the Taiwanese people the Japanese started with the elites. “The officials felt that if the new attitudes could be inculcated in the leadership classes, others would eventually follow their better example” (Tsurumi 1977:46)

The common school was created to educate Taiwanese. The main function of the school was to give Taiwanese children understanding and capabilities in the Japanese language, and to teach them ethics and practical knowledge. It was aimed to give the students basic knowledge improving the economy, improving health standards and spread Japanese ideas and customs. Japanese language and Ethics remained the key subjects to cultivating morality and loyalty towards Japan. (Tsurumi, 1977:58)In the middle schools, all students were required to reside in the Japanese style dormitory, eat Japanese food, wear Japanese clothing, take hot baths, and to get accustomed to other Japanese customs.

In the 1920s the assimilation polices at the schools were further strengthen. At the times the Japanese included education of the girls. Having the girls join was seen as important if Japanese customs were ever to accepted and absorbed. At the schools, the middle

88

school and medical school students were increasingly exposed to Japanese culture. “All Middle school and medical student were required to live in Japanese style dormitories, speak Japanese all the time and live according to the customs of the Japanese

culture”(Tsurumi, 1977:64)

Lu Cheng-li argues that the Taiwanese intellectuals conflated the colonial imperialism with the desire for modernity. “Japan became the most important place to study abroad for Taiwanese intellectuals … The only other choice, Mainland China, surely lags behind in its degree of modernity. As a result Japan monopolized the horizon of modernity for the Taiwanese. Without a standpoint to compare they unknowingly assumed Japan to be the most modernized nation in the most modernized nation in the world, and conflated “modernization” with “Japanization”. The inability to separate the two concepts away from each other contributed to preventing the Taiwanese intellectuals to ask questions about the colonialism. (Ching, 2001:28) Similar is the notion that the elites assimilated aspects of the Japanese lifestyles. “These men and women were fluent in the Japanese language, familiar with Japanese culture, at home in Japanese social settings, and well versed in the laws and institutions that governed both Japan and the colony.” Among the Japanese trained intellectuals several of them appeared to be well assimilated into the Japanese lifestyle. “The physicians, lawyers, clerks, journalists and urban school teachers appeared much closer to the Japanese rulers in lifestyle and attitude than to the poor Taiwanese peasants of rural villages.” O Ikutoku draws similar

conclusions: The thousands of Taiwanese, who received post secondary training in

Taiwan or at the home island entered the ranks of Japanese intellectuals, becoming almost indistinguishable from them.” (Tsurumi, 1977:177) The elites applied more of the

benefits from the modernization. Traders and commerce were able to trade with the Japanese. As the elites got education before the masses they were able to read newspapers and take part in the public sphere.

Further the modernization created new understanding of the world. Before the Japanese rule, the majority of the Taiwanese did not travel, after modernization

Taiwanese intellectuals would study abroad. Becoming cosmopolitan citizens. Although the elites were able to take more advantage of the system they were still oppressed in the Japanese system.

89

In contrast life was harder for the rural poorer parts of the population, the changes was not due to desire of exploring modernity. However the Japanese colonial period also change the understanding of the world for the lower classes. Yet the everyday life

changed for the masses as well. To this day its citizens remember the period through the safety and orderliness. After the Japanese assimilation processes in the 1920s, the Japanese adopted education for the masses. In the end of the 1940, 70 percent of the school age population was enrolled in school. Although the Taiwanese masses were less influenced by the Japanese culturally, their everyday life certainly changed during the 50 years of colonial rule.

4. Conclusion

Through the framework of identity as a variable I have analyzed the impact of the Japanese colonial era on Taiwanese identity through the research question: How did the identity of the people living on Taiwan transform during the Japanese colonial period 1895-1945? Comparing Taiwan before 1895 to the situation 50 years later, it is evident that the years of colonial rule fundamentally changed society in Taiwan.

Analyzing the constitutive norms of Taiwan. The years of colonial rule

transformed the people on Taiwan into law-abiding citizens. Before 1895 Taiwan was dominated by lawlessness and lack of functioning government.Compared to the previous rulers the Japanese was a modern state. It implemented a police state through tight control.

A key instrument for control was the Hoko system. The Japanese ruthlessly enforced the laws and regulations. As a result the Taiwanese did not have any option but to obey. The Japanese also modernized the Taiwanese economy and established education. An

important aspect of the education was the importance of law and order as well as obedience. Over time the Taiwanese saw the benefits of being law-abiding citizens and adopted the norms into their own culture.

Further the years of colonial rule the Japanese also created norms of sanitation.

Before 1895 Taiwan had serious health problems. The Japanese brought modern

medicine and established hospital and training for doctors. In the initial years the health reforms was implemented through force. In addition the Japanese education put a lot of

90

focus on the importance and benefits of cleanliness. Together with the Japanese reforms, the status of the Taiwanese doctors combined with their efforts to improve the situation was key in improving the health on the Island. By the end of Japanese rule, Taiwanese people had adapted the Japanese sanitation practices.

In addition the Japanese colonial era transformed the status of women. Before 1895 women did not enjoy a high status in Taiwan. They were not educated and only a handful could read. The Japanese colonizers included girls in the their education policies.

Over time education of girls grew more accepted. As women got educated, some women joined the workforce.

During the 50 years of colonial rule people in the cities and upper classes were more influenced by the Japanese than the masses. The elites received education for a longer time than the masses. In addition they received more of the benefits of

modernization. However due to the strict control in the colony, the norm of law-abiding citizens was applied all over the island.

The norms of cleanliness were applied all over the island, but they were

internalized further in urban areas. Education of girls was more accepted in urban areas than rural. Girls’ education was also more accepted among the elites than the masses.

For social purpose I have established that in the 1920s a new class of Taiwanese intellectuals established the goal of increasing the rights and opportunities for the Taiwanese. After being educated in the Japanese system the intellectuals aspired high ambitions. However in the Japanese oppressive regime the Taiwanese were blocked from gaining importance and high positions. Taiwanese enjoyed less rights, got paid less, and were discriminated against on almost all levels of society. At the time the Taiwanese intellectuals formed anti colonial social movements. The movements started with the claims of equal rights for Taiwanese and Japanese citizens and for less oppression against the Taiwanese. The movements developed into claims of self-rule and campaign

advocating a Taiwanese parliament. The movement started a campaign of enlightenment of the people, and gave publication in order to inspire and inform the population. Other social movements focused on promoting local cultures and securing them in a time of

91

Japanese dominance.The social movements derived on two dimensions, between liberal and Marxist thoughts and between their opinion regarding Taiwan in the context of China or Japan. The movements inspired by Marxist thought proposed a revolutionary approach to change. Movements inspired by liberal thought aimed at gradual change through reforms. Some of the movement such as the Assimilation society, and New People's society aimed at social reforms and equal rights within the Japanese system. Although the social movements used different approaches and had a different opinion on China, they all aimed at improving the situation for the Taiwanese living on Taiwan. The movement articulated a notion of Taiwanese as a single unit, deserving more rights and a better standard of living.

Analyzing relational comparisons I have established that the Japanese period created the notion of Taiwanese as a collective unit. In the initial period of Japanese rule the Japanese broke down existing structures in Taiwan replacing them with new Japanese structures. By doing so, the Japanese started breaking down the cleavages dividing different sub ethnic groups on the island. Following, the Japanese modernized the island and started educating the Taiwanese. In the modern urbanized society Taiwanese started interacting and living alongside people from other parts of the island. The Japanese discriminated the Taiwanese. They perceived themselves as a superior race and culture compared to native population. Taiwanese were legally and socially discriminated against.

Taiwanese were paid worse than Japanese and could not rise to high positions. In the lack of opportunities and collective suppression created an in-group mentality of Taiwanese as a single unit. Thus the Japanese had unknowingly created a Taiwanese identity. In the 1920s the Japanese started the assimilation policy known as doka. The goal was to turn the Taiwanese people into Japanese. The policy change led to more people in school and a higher Japanese influence among the people. However the Japanese kept discriminating and distancing themselves from Taiwanese. However some people especially elites and intellectuals started adopting some aspects of Japanese culture and customs. However the majority of the masses remained in the Chinese culture.

In the last eight years of the colonial rule, the Japanese entered a period of war mobilization and Japanization. They mobilized the people through language campaigns;

In the last eight years of the colonial rule, the Japanese entered a period of war mobilization and Japanization. They mobilized the people through language campaigns;