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8.6 L I -to-L O Mapping: Type 3b Operation
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(209) LI-to-LO production grammar: faithful output Linguistic input: yin55 shi33 ‘diet’ 飲食 Final output: yin55 shi35
ASSOC-TERM ID-T
a. yin55 shi35 * *
b. yin33 shi55 * *!*
c. yin35 shi55 * *!*
In tableau (209), the terms are unassociated at either lexical or postlexical level, and the constraint ASSOC-TERM is violated by each of the candidates. The candidate in (209a) wins over the others by one less violation of ID-T.
8.6 L
I-to-L
OMapping: Type 3b Operation
In the type 3b operation, the final output is unfaithful to the linguistic input. The markedness constraints rule out the faithful output and select the output that conforms to surface well-formedness. Three constraints are relevant for this mapping, as in (210-212).
(210) OCP-LOW:
Assign one violation mark for every pairs of low tones.
(211) TONOTACTICS:
Assign one violation mark for every tone such as 33 and 44 that does not exist in Mandarin.
(212)ID-T-R:
Assign one violation mark for every rightmost tone that is not identical to its correspondent in the input.
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OCP-LOW prohibits consecutive low tones, and forces one of the tones to change.
ID-T-R preserves the right tone and allows the left tone to change. The constraint TONOTACTICS bans any tone that does not exist in Mandarin, and must be ranked higher than ID-T. The enriched constraint ranking is posited in (213).
(213) LI-to-LO constraint ranking (enriched):
ASSOC-TERM,TONOTACTICS,OCP-LOW >>ID-T, ID-T-R;
Tableau (214) shows how this constraint works.
(214) LI-to-LO production grammar: unfaithful output
Initial output/Postlexical input: li11 li11 ‘flourish’ 離離 Final output: li35 li11
ASSOC-TERM TONOTACTICS OCP-LOW ID-T ID-T-R
a. li35 li11 * *
b. li11 li11 * *!
c. li11 li35 * * *!
d. li33 li11 * *! *
The markedness constraints rule out (214b, d) respectively, while (214c) is ruled out by the faithfulness constraint, ID-T-R. As a consequence, (214a) emerges as the optimal output, where li35 li21, is different from the postlexical input, li11 li11.
Another example lies in the phonotactics. For instance, the musical output, mei5
mao5, perceived as mei55 mao55 in the linguistic input, which, in the failure of
lexical term association, is faithfully mapped as the initial output, which in turns serves as the postlexical input. In the failure of postlexical term association, the postlexical input, mei55 mao55, is eventually mei35 mao55, which is an unfaithful output. This unfaithful mapping is attributed to the fact that the syllable-tone‧ 國
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combination of mei55 is illegal in the Mandarin output. The constraint PHONOTACTICS, as in (215), is thus needed for the following discussions.
(215) PHONOTACTICS:
Assign one violation mark for every illegal syllable-tone combination in the output.
PHONOTACTICS should be undominated, and the partial constraint ranking is expended as (216).
(216) LI-to-LO constraint ranking (enriched):
ASSOC-TERM,TONOTACTICS, PHONOTACTICS,OCP-LOW >>ID-T, ID-T-R
Tableau (217) demonstrates the constraint interaction.
(217) LI-to-LO production grammar:
Initial output/Postlexical input: mei55 mao55 ‘eyebrows’ 眉毛 Final output: mei35 mao55
ASSOC- TERM TONOTACTICS PHONOTACTICS ID-T
a. mei35 mao55 * *
b. mei55 mao55 * *!
Since the children fail to associate the term to their mental lexicon, the constraint ASSOC-term is violated by both candidates. The syllable-tone combination of mei55 in (217b) violates PHONOTACTICS. (217a) thus surfaces and an unfaithful output is selected.
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8.7 Summary
This chapter has addressed a third type of operation in the music-to-language mapping. The perception grammar that maps MO to LI is the same as that in type 1 and type 2, as discussed in Chapter 7. This third type of operation further consists of two subtypes, type 3a and type 3b, in both of which term association fails at the lexical and postlexical levels. The mapping from the postlexical input to the final output is keyed to the interactions of faithfulness and markedness constraints. I have posited a set of constraints, which are ranked as in (218).
(218) LI-to-LO production grammar: term association
ASSOC-TERM TONOTACTICS OCP-LOW PHONOTACTICS
ID-T ID-T-R
The MO-to-LI perception grammar values the faithfulness relation between the musical pitch and the linguistic tone. The LI-to-LO production grammar requires term association at the lexical and postlexical levels. If term association fails, the final linguistic output will be faithful to the postlexical input; however, when surface markedness constraints are violated, an unfaithful output will emerge.
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Chapter 9
Conclusion and Further Issue
9.1 Conclusion
This study probes into the connection between language and music through the perception and production grammar in English and Mandarin songs. The interaction between language and music is revealed in three aspects, namely, segment, rhythm, and tone.
Chapters 3 and 4 compare the linguistic mapping and the language-to-music mapping in onset and coda clusters through Mandarin accented English. The linguistic mapping in onset clusters and coda clusters involves the interaction between segmental faithfulness and markedness, as well as prosodic alignment, which yields two output variants: the monosyllabic LO1and the disyllabic LO2. At this stage, the SSP is not crucial in either constraint ranking. Consider the Hasse diagrams reproduced in (219).
(219)LI-to-LO mapping in onset and coda clusters (a) LI-to-LO1 mapping: ()
ALIGN-E (LEX, ) DEP-V MAX-C
SSP
*CC
(b) LI-to-LO2 mapping: ()
ALIGN-E(LEX, ) *CC MAX-C
SSP
DEP-V
(220a) exhibits the LO-to-MI perception grammar in onset clusters, while (220b) presents that in coda clusters.
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(220)
(a) LO-to-MI mapping in onset clusters NOSTRAY MAX-C
DEP-V
ALIGN-R(♩, )
NOSHARE-B NOSHARE-σ
(b) LO-to-MI mapping in coda clusters NOSTRAY MAX-C NOSHARE-σ & *CCCODA
DEP-V
SSP
ALIGN-R(♩, )
NOSHARE-B NOSHARE-σ
In (220b), the conjoined constraint, NOSHARE-σ & *CCCODA,is dominant and SSP is observed to affect the insertion of vowels in singing.
The MI-to-MO production grammar in onset and coda clusters requires faithfulness of syllable-beat association and the removal of prosodic structure in the musical output as reproduced in the Hasse diagram in (221).
(221) MI-to-MO production grammar
ID-ASSOC *PROSST
MAX-PROSST
Chapters 5 and 6 examine the language-to-music mapping with the focus on the composing of Mandarin children’s song. In Chapter 5, I have examined how the foot and IP structures affect the assignment of musical beats. The foot is formed based on the syntactic structures, in which immediate constituent (IC) and branching direction
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are keyed to deciding the output. The constraint ranking for foot formation is reproduced in the Hasse diagram in (222).
(222) LI-to-LO production grammar
NOSTRADDLE-FT PARSE-ALIGN-E(IC,FT)*MONO-FT
FTBIN
The LO-to-MI perception grammar of the syllable-to-beat assignment of foot is exhibited in Hasse diagram reproduced in (223).
(223) LO-to-MI perception grammar
NOSTRAY NOSTRADDLE-B(FT) NOSHARE-(B5)
NOSPLIT-IC(B) NOSHARE-B NOSHARE-σ
As in (223) and in (220) proposed previously, both NOSHARE-B and NOSHARE-σ are ranked at the bottom, as a syllable is often linked to multiple musical beats to prevent stray elements and vice versa.
Chapter 6 continues to examine the mapping of rhythmic structures focalizing on the intonational phrase (IP). The IPs in the lyric output are defined by the punctuation marks, which is captured by ALIGN-R(PM, IP). The mapping of the IP to the musical input is crucial to the measure-to-IP alignment and the IP-final musical lengthening.
The LO-to-MI perception grammar is governed by two sets of constraints as reproduced
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in the Hasse diagrams in (224) and (225).
(224) LO-to-MI perception grammar: measure-to-IP alignment ALIGN-R(SONG,IP) ALIGN-L(MN, IP)
ALIGN-R(M2N, IP)
ALIGN-L(IP, MN) ALIGN-R(IP,M2N)
(225) LO-to-MI perception grammar: musical beat assignment NOSTRAY *n-1 n]IP NOSHARE-(B5) NOSPLIT-IC(B)
NOSPLIT-IC(B)
The mapping between the musical input (MI) and the musical output (MO) in Chapter 5-6 is governed by three constraints, ID-ASSOC,*PROSST and MAX-PROSST. As previously posited in Chapter 3-4, the musical output preserves the musical beat association but removes the structure of the prosodic structures.
In Chapter 7-8, the music-to-language mapping is examined through children’s perception of the singing of Mandarin songs. Singing words or phrases are mapped to the linguistic input forms with similar tonal values through the perception grammar.
The perception grammar is accounted by the correspondence of musical pitch, register, and distance in the MO-to-LI mapping, which is governed by a set of constraints reproduced in the Hasse diagram in (226).
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(226) MO-to-LI perception grammar: pitch-tone correspondence ID-REG ID-CTR NoDIST=1 MAX-DIST
NoDIST=4
The children associate what they have heard to their mental lexicon through the LI-to-LO production grammar. Four types of operations are observed. In the type 1 and type 2 operations, term association is achieved at some points and the final outputs are actual words or phrases as governed by the constraint ranking reproduced in the Hasse diagram in (227).
(227) LI-to-LO production grammar: term association ASSOC-TERM TONOTACTICS
ID-T
The top-ranked ASSOC-TERM selects the associated term whose tone may be different from the linguistic input.
In the type 3a and 3b operations, term association fails at both lexical and postlexical level. If term association fails, the final linguistic output will be faithful to the postlexical input; however, when surface markedness constraints are violated, an unfaithful output will emerge. The relevant Hasse diagram is reproduced in (228).
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(228) LI-to-LO production grammar: term association
ASSOC-TERM TONOTACTICS OCP-LOW PHONOTACTICS
ID-T ID-T-R
Taken together, Chapters 3 to 8 demonstrate segmental changes, rhythmic alignment, beat assignment, and linguistic tonal changes in the mapping between language and music. From the perspective of segment and rhythm, the language-to-music mapping shows that the perception grammar plays an important role. Tonal changes in the music-to-language mapping also support that there is an independent perception grammar.
9.2 Further issue
In Chapters 7 and 8, I have examined how disyllabic musical pitches are transformed into linguistic tones. Each syllable is associated with one musical beat with equal musical prominence. This study has also observed the musical pitch to linguistic tone mapping in multisyllabic phrases and sentences, where syllables are mapped to accented (>) or unaccented musical beats as exemplified in (229).
(229) ‘His name is Jesus’
> (musical prominence)
ta5 ming7 jiao6 ye5-su3 (musical pitch)
ta55 ming53 jiao53 ye55 su55 (linguistic tone)
he name call Jesus‧ 國
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In (229), the linguistic final output, ta55, jiao53, and ye55-su55 are terms that can be associated by the children, whereas, ming53 is an unassociated term. Since ming53 is the unassociated term, its linguistic tonal output is not influenced by lexicon association. However, why is ming7 perceived as ming53 instead of ming55, which is faithful to the singing output? It is observed that some of the children perceive the accented (>) singing output as the linguistic tone, 53. Future studies can examine how the pitches of the accented musical beats are perceived into linguistic tones.
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Ling, Wang-Chen. 2018. The Output-to-output Tonal Correspondence in Language and Music. International Conference on Tone and Intonation (TIE2018).
Ling, Wang-Chen. 2018. The Competition between Contour and Register Correspondence in Music-to-Language Perception: Evidence from Mandarin Child Songs. The 51st International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics (ICSTLL51)
Ling, Wang-Chen. 2018. Child perception of Mandarin Songs: An Optimality Theory Analysis. The 7the International Conference on Phonology and Morphology.
Ling, Wang-Chen. 2017. The Conformity of Language and Melody in Mandarin Children’s Song. 37th Annual Conference of the Poetics And Linguistics Association. West Chester University, Pennsylvania, USA.
Ling, Wang-Chen. 2016. Text-setting of Mandarin tone in children’s song: a corpus analysis. The 28th annual North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL-28). Brigham Young University, Utah, USA.
Ling, Wang-Chen. 2015. Circular Tonal Chain Shifts in Leling Pre-light Syllable Positions, National Conference on Linguistics (NCL 2014). National Chengchi University, Taipei.
Ling, Wang-Chen. 2014. Mandarin clipped words of government committees in Taiwan-An OT analysis. The 22nd Annual Conference of the IACL & the 26th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (IACL-22 & NACCL-26).
University of Maryland, Maryland, USA.
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International Theoretical Phonology Conference (TPC-4). National Chengchi University, Taipei.Ling, Wang-Chen. 2012. A corpus-based study on the semantic relatedness of the Mandarin polysemous word xia1, blind. NCL2012. Southern Taiwan University, Tainan.
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The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong.
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Ling, Wang-Chen. 2009. Textsetting strategies in Mandarin hymns. The 9th International Conference on Teaching of Chinese Language. Taipei
Ling, Wang-Chen. 2009. The phonological-musical strategies in textsetting of Chinese Bible verses: a corpus-based analysis. The 42nd International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics. Payap University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Ling, Wang-Chen. 2009. The Mandarin (reflexive) pronoun of SELF (zi4ji3) in bible:
a corpus-based study. The Fifth Corpus Linguistics Conference. Liverpool University. Liverpool, England.
Ling, Wang-Chen. 2009. Lyric modifications in Mandarin hymns as a case of music template satisfaction. The 2009 Graduate Student Workshop on Phonology.
National Chengchi University, Taipei.
Ling, Wang-Chen & Wang, Li-Ting. 2008. Mandarin-Accented English: A Syllable Template Perspective. 2008 Student Workshop on East Asian Linguistics.
National Tsinghua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan.
Grants and Scholarships
2020 Member of the Phi Tau Phi Scholastic Honor Society of the Republic of China 2019 Graduate student scholarship (Ph.D. program)
2018-2020 Research Assistantship of Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST107-2410-H-004-115-MY2)
2018 Teaching Assistantship of Taiwan Southern Min and Taiwan Culture, NCCU
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2018 College of Foreign Languages & Literature, NCCU Travel Grant for attending the 7th International Conference on Phonology and Morphology (ICPM7)
2017 Teaching Assistantship of Language and World Civilization, NCCU
2017 Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) Travel Grant for attending the 37th Annual Conference of the Poetics And Linguistics Association
2016-2018 Research Assistantship of MOST (MOST 105-2410-H-004-181-MY2) 2016 MOST Travel Grant for attending the 28th North American Conference on
Chinese Linguistics
2014-2016 Research Assistantship of MOST (MOST 103-2410-H-004-086-MY2) 2014 MOST Travel Grant for attending the 22nd Annual Conference of the IACL & the
2014-2016 Research Assistantship of MOST (MOST 103-2410-H-004-086-MY2) 2014 MOST Travel Grant for attending the 22nd Annual Conference of the IACL & the