Martial arts in Japan

Japanese martial arts have originated in the samurai era, in which the use of weapons was restricted to the warrior classes. The arts originated from the necessity of combat, and later developed into a spiritual goal that was achieved through perfecting martial skills. Japanese martial arts are divided to kurio and gendai budo. Kurio, literally traditional or old school, relates to pre-Meiji Restoration styles that are looked upon as representing the true Japanese martial arts, having evolved from feudal martial culture. Gendai budo, or modern martial way, is a generic term used to describe Japanese martial arts that are considered "modern", i.e. either the art was founded after the beginning of the Meiji Restoration in 1866, or an art practiced since before 1866 changed its methodology and is considered a sports or self-improvement art. The kurio arts include sumo, jujitsu, sword styles like iaido and more. Gendai budo styles include judo, kendo, aikido, karate and more.

Japanese martial arts are divided not only into kurio and gendai budo, but also by the existence of separated styles of weapons and empty-hand, whereas Chinese martial arts styles usually combine the practices of both.

The researcher feels that in order to achieve a fuller picture of Japanese martial arts, an elaborate discussion of one representative of kurio style and one representative of gendai budo style is in order. Therefore, the following paragraphs will illustrate the different development of martial arts in Japan by describing the paths of jujitsu, a kurio art, and karate, a gendai budo art.

Art historian Kevin Gray Carr (1993) refers the tradition of jujitsu to mythological combats depicted in early Japanese history. One of those myths

story describes the battle between a commoner and a divine wrestler for control of the land. The wrestler won the islands for the sun goddess and her descendants, the people of Japan. According to Carr, until the early sixteen-century, the warriors (步士bushi) were supposed to follow the do (道 dao), “a path of pure and direct spirituality that was said to be an essential part of being a warrior”. (Carr, 1993, p.179)

Carr describes a variety of techniques that predated the formal style we know today. The styles included empty-hands grappling techniques for two-armored men, simulating a situation in which the samurais lost their swords. Reflecting on the question of the presence of the do concept in early times, he claims that although Kamakura era (1185–1333) warriors spoke of kyûba no michi (“the way of horse and bow”), which integrated Shintô¹² and Confucians thought and “stressed bravery in battle and loyalty to one’s lord”, in fact, only a small part of them was aware to or practiced the do.

During the Edo period (1603–1868) there was a significant rise in numbers of martial arts schools specializing in empty-hand forms, whereas the older, battle oriented martial arts declined. During that time, Neo-Confucians ideas spread in Japan; the samurais lost their lands and were forced to either become peasants or city bureaucrats. Loosing its military connotations, martial arts were practiced along other forms of traditional rituals, such as tea ceremony, writing, painting and dancing, in which the bushi were expected to prove proficiency. The merchant classes of Edo period were wealthy and enjoyed a fair amount of free time. Many of them started showing interest in martial arts. Having no former combat experience, they developed new styles, mostly jujitsu types, which “lacked any sort of martial experience”.

Carr reports that in early times there were at least 179 different jujitsu schools, which dealt with empty hand and small weapons techniques. In Edo times, schools started to specialize in “non-combat tested, empty hand techniques”, each school stressed one or two major methods, and emphasized the aesthetics of the movements, “beauty of motion as achieved by minimum use of strength became more and more prized.”

12 A native religious of Japan, involves the worship of spirits.

The concept of do, originally influenced by Daoist and Confucian concept of dao (way) has evolved to include local religious and political requirements, later developing into “a road or path to follow as a means of self cultivation and perfection in this life”. With war getting out of date, Japanese warriors turned to adopting self-cultivation methods. In the middle of the eighteen-century, Zen Buddhist ideas that influenced Japanese martial arts induced the creation of Zen arts, in which the perfection of the self was more important than techniques. In Carr’s words, “the ‘Zen warrior’ was to become self-reliant, self-denying, and single-minded. Since this mythic fighter would have no attachment to life or death (seishin o choetsu—“transcending life and death”), he could calmly accept the ever-presence of death in his profession with stoic composure and trust in fate, this warrior would practice the “artless art,” which transcended technique”. (Carr, 1993, pp.170-174)

Karate was developed in Okinawa. Okinawa’s location and demographic situation made it prone to foreign influence, mainly from China and Japan. It is believed that Chinese imperial expeditions reached the islands as early as Qin dynasty (221-210 BC). Researcher Kevin Tan (2004) describes a book called bushibi, which inspired a number of karateka¹³ in the nineteen-century;

the book claims that karate’s origin was linked to Chinese white crane fist and Shaolin lohan fist (mentioned above). According to Tan, karate was practiced by the military and lower classes that were illiterate and did not keep records.

(Tan, 2004, p. 177)

An honorable place in the history of karate is kept for Sakugawa, a legendary figure who traveled to China in 1724 in search of “instruction and expertise in quanfa (boxing methods)”; after a few years in which nobody heard from him and he was assumed lost, he allegedly came back to Okinawa and became a martial arts teacher. Tan connects the development of hand-to–hand combat to the ban on weapons imposed on Okinawa at the end of the seventeen-century.

Tan insists that the origin of karate cannot be confirmed due to lack of documented information, “karate is better seen as the result of a bricolage of martial sources with no clearly dominant predecessor”. (p. 179)

13 Karate practitioner.

In the beginning of the nineteen-century there were three main styles of karate in Okinawa. Towards the end of the century attempts were made to institutionalize and formalise the practice. In the end of the century, when Okinawa started to be officially regarded as a part of Japan, the practice of karate was banned. However, during the Meiji Restoration, the practice of martial arts, karate included, was “integrated into the national school curriculum as a form of “spiritual education”. (p. 182)

According to Tan, during the American occupation of Japan after World War II, the practice of judo and kendo were forbidden “on the assumption that they fostered an ideology of militarism”, however, karate was looked upon as “a form of cultural dance” or “mere exercise”, the occupying forces saw karate as a harmless form of physical education connected to Chinese boxing.

However, as a result of the occupation, Americans were exposed to Japanese martial arts. From 1953 onwards, the US Air Force sponsored classes of karate and judo for their personell. The immigration of karate and aikido teachers to the West increased the exposure of Japanese martial arts and helped nurturing a “growing commercialized oriental martial mythology in North-America”. According to Tan, at the time when after-war Japan was fighting to rebuild its self-esteem, the growing popularity of karate was part of Japan’s effort to “reassert itself by re-imagining its past”. Ever since, karate has gained greater popularity and many new styles branched from the originals. (p.185)