功夫標幟通俗設計的跨文化研究與初探

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(1)國立台灣師範大學, 美術系, 藝術指導組. 研究所碩士論文 National Taiwan Normal University, The Fine Art Department, Graduate program of Art Direction Master thesis. Martial arts logos: A cross-cultural study of vernacular design 功夫標幟之通俗設計的跨文化研究與初探. Thesis instructors: Professor Shih Ling-Hung, Associate professor Lin Chun-Liang 指導教授: 施令紅教授, 林俊良教授研究生: 昶愛. By: Anat Errel December 2008. 1.

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(3) To Dr. Elana Chipman, for all her help and support. 3.

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(5) Abstract The thesis is a study of the design characteristics of martial arts schools’ logos. The data was gathered from 51 martial arts schools around the world, and an identical amount of designer’s logo that served as a control group. The researcher proved that as a group, martial arts’ logos portray unique characteristics: the majority of the logos communicate complex ideas that are connected to the martial art style’s philosophy and historical roots; most of the logos are designed by the teachers or people connected to the style, and most of the designers are non-professionals; and although the majority of logos depict original images as their main graphic element, a great number of them combine traditional symbols. She applied semiotics, taxonomy and affectivity classes to analyse the logos and identified common qualities that characterised their design. She discovered that iconic, descriptive marks, high on representative and active qualities were prominent in portraying a style’s characteristics movement, whereas symbolic, non-figurative marks, high on representative and abstract qualities, were usually employed to express philosophical ideas. After comparing and analysing the results of the three classes, and following the conclusions, the researcher designed four martial arts logos and applied them to a variety of applications.. 5.

(6) 摘要本論文旨在武術學校的標誌之設計表徵，數據文獻包含了全世界共 51 所的武術學校，其中設定了相同數量的設計師 logo 作品為對照組。筆者歸納出團體中的武術標誌具有幾點特徵：多數的標誌符號與其武術類別思想及歷史根源有複雜的關係，而多數標誌皆是由師家或是與其類別有關聯的人設計，並非專業設計師。此外，這些標誌雖然以其原創構圖為主要視覺設計元素，大部份也都結合了傳統符號的概念。. 筆者採用了符號學、分類學、效果層次等理論，試分析出這些標誌，並確認其設計特徵的共同內涵。筆者進而發現在肖像式及敍述式符號，具有代表性及活潑內涵者，通常展現出某一個武術類別顯而易見的動作招式。相對的，象徵式或非象徵式的符號，具有代表性及抽象內涵者，通常被用於傳達其思想概念。筆者從這三種理論比較及分析後得此結論，進而設計出四種武術標誌，並實際應用得宜至善。. 6.

(7) Acknowledgments I would like to thank all these people, without their help this thesis could have never been written: Professor Perr Mollerup Steve Heller (AIDA) Bill Gardner-LogoLounge.com Mary Israel Simon Hall Dror Weil Wang Kuo-Chiang Wang Joyun Daniel Pawlak David Sadoway Chen Bo-Chang Ling Ting Abi Moria And all the teachers and designers who agreed to answer my questions and who shared their ideas with me.. 7.

(8) Table of contents List of charts. 10. List of images. 11. 1.. Chapter 1 -Introduction. 15. 2.. Chapter 2- history of logos. 22. 2.1. History of graphic marks in the West. 22. 2.2. History of graphic marks in the East. 31. 2.2.1. Graphic marks in China. 31. 2.2.1.1. Martial arts logos in China. 37. 2.2.2. Heraldic signs in Japan. 38. 3. Chapter 3- martial arts. 40. 3.1. History of martial arts. 40. 3.1.1. Martial arts in the West. 40. 3.1.2. Martial arts in China. 41. 3.1.3.. Martial arts in Japan. 45. 3.1.4.. Martial arts in Korea. 48. 3.1.5.. Brazilian jujitsu. 49. 3.1.6.. Capoeira. 50. 3.2. Internal and external martial arts. 49. 3.3. Chinese cosmology and its relation to martial arts. 52. 4. Chapter 4- creative theory and methods. 61. 4.1. Analysing methods. 61. 4.2. IMA logos table. 70. 4.3. EMA logos table. 80. 4.4. Designers’ logos table. 88. 4.5. Analysing process. 112. 4.5.1. Semiotics analysing. 147. 4.5.2. Taxonomy analysing. 150. 4.5.3. Affectivity analysing. 153. 5. Chapter 5- Design. 157. 6. Conclusions. 189. 7. References. 196. 8. Appendixes:. 199. 8.

(9) 8.1. Appendix 1: Questionnaire. 199. 8.2. Appendix 2: Follow-up questions. 202. 8.3. Appendix 3: Interview with designers’ questions. 203. 8.4. Appendix 4: Table 1. 204. 9.

(10) List of charts: Chart 1: Thesis flow chart. 20. Chart 2: Name and philosophy related data. 113. Chart 3: Traditional and original images data. 124. Chart 4: Professional and non-professional design data. 132. Chart 5: Designed made by students in the schools data. 133. Chart 6: Designers’ logos partitions. 137. Chart 7: Designers’ logos name and philosophy related data. 137. Chart 8: Designers’ logos traditional and original images data. 141. Chart 9: Semiotics classification. 148. Chart 10: Affectivity. 155. 10.

(11) List of images: Image 1: The paper’s participates’ countries of origin map. 21. Image 2: Jinan Liu’s Fine Needle Shop sign. 34. Image 3: The Neo-Confucianism model of the world’s phenomena. 55. Image 4: The five phases formation. 56. Image 5. Comparison of semiotic and taxonomy classes. 65. Image 6:. A guide to reading the IMA, EMA and designers’ tables. 69. Image 7:. Karen - logo 1. 160. Image 8:. Karen - logo 2. 160. Image 9:. Karen - logo 3. 161. Image 10: Karen - logo 4. 161. Image 11: Karen - logo 5. 161. Image 12: Karen - logo 6. 161. Image 13: Karen - logo 7. 162. Image 14: Karen - logo 8. 162. Image 15: Karen’s final logo. 162. Image 16: Karen’s visual identity system. 165. Image 17: Karen - name card. 166. Image 18: Karen – sticker. 166. Image 19: Karen - envelope. 166. Image 20: Karen – notepaper. 166. Image 21: Karen - post-it notes. 166. Image 22: Karen - sketchbook cover. 166. Image 23: Karen - pages from a book. 166. Image 24: Karen – ankle support. 167. Image 25: Karen – wrist support. 167. Image 26: Karen – taiji ruler. 167. Image 27: Karen – fan. 167. Image 28: Karen –taijiquan shoes. 167. Image 29: Karen –bandana. 167. Image 30: Karen – cap. 167. Image 31: Karen – bag. 168. Image 32: Karen – socks. 168. 11.

(12) Image 33: Karen – socks. 168. Image 33: Karen – glasses band. 168. Image 34: Karen – key band. 168. Image 35: Karen –towels. 168. Image 36: Karen –water bottle. 168. Image 37: Karen – T-shirts. 168. Image 38: Karen – pages from the taijiquan classics. 169. Image 39: Haim – logos 1, 2 and 3. 170. Image 40: Haim – logos 4, 5, and 6. 170. Image 41: Haim‘s final logo. 170. Image 42: Haim’s visual Identity. 172. Image 43: Haim-name card. 173. Image 44: Haim-sticker. 173. Image 45: Haim-notepaper. 173. Image 46: Haim-post-it notes. 173. Image 47: Haim-ankle support. 173. Image 48: Haim-wrist support. 173. Image 49: Haim-sport’s bra. 173. Image 50: Haim-cap. 173. Image 51: Haim- shoes. 174. Image 52: Haim-gym bag. 174. Image 53: Haim-sweat headband. 174. Image 54: Haim-sweat wristband. 174. Image 55: Haim-T-shirts. 174. Image 56: Haim-water bottle. 174. Image 57: Haim-exam certificate. 174. Image 59: Haim-Dan exam certificate. 174. Image 60: Haim- pages from the passport. 174. Image 61: Haim-belt. 175. Image 62: Haim- gloves. 175. Image 63: Haim-helmet. 175. Image 64: Haim- knee guards. 175. Image 65: Haim-uniform. 175. Image 66: Haim-punching bag. 175 12.

(13) Image 66: Suigetsu-logos 1 and 2. 176. Image 67: Suigetsu - logos 3 and 4. 176. Image 68: Suigetsu-logos 5 and 6. 177. Image 69: Suigetsu-logo 7. 177. Image 70: Suigetsu’s visual identity. 179. Image 71: Suigetsu-name card. 180. Image 72: Suigetsu-notepaper. 180. Image 73: Suigetsu-envelope. 180. Image 74: Suigetsu-sticker. 180. Image 75: Suigetsu-post-me notes. 180. Image 77: Suigetsu- uniform. 180. Image 78: Suigetsu-belt. 180. Image 79: Suigetsu- ankle and wrist supports. 181. Image 80: Suigetsu-bandana. 181. Image 80: Suigetsu-cap. 181. Image 81: Suigetsu-sport’s bra. 181. Image 82: Suigetsu-socks. 181. Image 83: Suigetsu-bag. 181. Image 83: Suigetsu-gym bag. 181. Image 84: Suigetsu-key band. 182. Image 85: Suigetsu-glasses band. 182. Image 86: Suigetsu-head and wrist sweatbands. 182. Image 87: Suigetsu-T-shirts. 182. Image 88: Suigetsu-water bottle. 182. Image 89: Chiron - tomeo logos 1, 2 and 3. 183. Image 90: Chiron - pushing-hands logos 4, 5 and 6. 183. Image 91: Chiron – taijiquan and qigong postures; logos 7 and 8. 183. Image 92: Chiron – taijiquan postures; logos 9 and 10. 183. Image 92: Chiron’s visual identity system. 185. Image 93: Chiron – name card. 186. Image 94: Chiron – sticker. 186. Image 95: Chiron – envelope. 186. Image 96: Chiron – notepaper. 186. Image 97: Chiron – book cover. 186 13.

(14) Image 98: Chiron – post-me notes. 186. Image 99: Chiron – ankle and knee supports. 186. Image 100: Chiron – uniform. 187. Image 101: Chiron – shoes. 187. Image 102: Chiron – fan. 187. Image 103: Chiron – sword. 187. Image 104: Chiron – ruler. 187. Image 105: Chiron – cap. 187. Image 106: Chiron – bag. 187. Image 107: Chiron – socks. 187. Image 108: Chiron – thermos. 187. Image 109: Chiron – towels. 188. Image 110: Chiron – water bottle. 188. Image 111: Chiron – T-shirt. 188. Image 112: Chiron – T-shirt’s front and back. 188. 14.

(15) 1. Chapter 1- Introduction The design of logos is considered to be a high form of graphic design. A logo needs to employ a minimum of images to induce maximum affectivity. As Designer Paul Rand (2001) said, ” The principle role of a logo is to identify, and simplicity is its means.” (Rand, 2001, p. 58) Martial arts’ logos occupy a very negligible part of the logo design world. No research has ever been preformed on the subject, and hardly any martial art logo has ever found its way into logos literature. In fact, unless they practice martial arts, most people seldom encounter such logos; they appeal only to a small, captive audience. However, as small as this part may be, its importance lies in providing the target audience with information regarding the types 1 and styles 2 of the martial art, as well as the school or club’s essence and emphasis of teaching, all substantial factors in choosing a place of practice. The researcher of this thesis, who is both a martial artist and a graphic designer, found herself attracted to the research of martial arts logos in spite of the bad reputations those logos have among people with artistic sensibilities, or, as a artist friend, You Sue-ching, responded when hearing about the thesis subject, “martial arts’ logos? But they are all so ugly!” When seen as a group, martial arts’ logos indeed give the impression of carelessly designed logos; they are often complex, employ more than one graphic object, or try to simultaneously communicate a great deal of information. However, as a group they also tend to share a common graphic language, in terms of images and symbolism. The researcher thinks that if one bothers to look at martial arts’ logos a second time it is clear that there is more to them than just a sloppy design. The graphic images employed, the layout and the combination of elements all seem to have been meticulously chosen and placed with deliberation. The combination of all the abovementioned components, which indeed characterize the majority of martial arts’ logo designs, is the exact reason the researcher believes that design deserves further attention; such phenomena cannot be fortuitous, and must have its inner logic and reasoning. The researcher cannot think of another 1. Types- refer to the generic martial art, i.e. karate, gongfu, taijiquan etc. Styles- each type of martial arts is divided to numerous styles, i.e. kyukoshin karate, shaolin gongfu, yang taijiquan. 2. 15.

(16) same-profession. group. of. logos. that. share. similar. distinct. design. characteristics. As a result, the researcher argues that the reason lies in the logo’s subject matter, the martial arts themselves, and in their characteristics as a group. Based on her knowledge of the martial arts’ world, the researcher formed a few hypotheses regarding the design of martial arts logos. This paper will examine the hypotheses. The first hypothesis regarding martial arts’ logos suggests that as a group, they incorporate a need to express philosophical ideas alongside the basic requirement of representing the school or system’s identity. The philosophy of martial arts is an organic part of its teaching and practicing, and therefore an important requisite of the logo design. The term ‘philosophy’ in this content will be explained later in the introduction. The second hypothesis suggests that non-professional designers, most likely the teachers themselves, design a substantial amount of the martial arts’ logos. Although their visual qualities were a main part of what attracted the researcher to explore martial arts’ logos in the first place, she nevertheless decided not to present an aesthetic judgment of the logos, she felt that the beauty of logos, besides being an entirely subjective issue, is not altogether relevant to the results of the research, and is also impossible to qualify and quantify. From the same reasons, she also did not value the logos as ‘good’ and ‘bad’. The researcher believes that by a thorough examination of the existing martial arts’ logos, their background and purposes, as well as a detailed analysis of their design, she will be able to suggest ways to improve their design. In order to research the hypotheses, the researcher collected data both from professional and non-professional sources and analysed them according to three research questions and three design criteria. The researcher elected semiotics as the first tool to analyse the logos’ design. Semiotics, defined by Saussure (1974) as “a science, which studies the life of signs… it would investigate the nature of signs and the laws governing them” (Saussure, 1974, p.16), is a useful tool to observe graphic symbols. For the purpose of categorizing the paper’s database of logos, the researcher found 16.

(17) Peirce’ trichotomy of icon, index and symbol the most suitable, enabling a classification of a graphic image that is both visually and conceptually meaningful. The second design criterion is taxonomy, originally developed by Per Mollerup (1997) in order to define the qualities of trademarks. Although independent of semiotics, its classifications are related to semiotic definitions and add to the understanding of the different components that create a logo. The last criterion is based on guidelines created by Pamela W. Henderson and Joseph A. Cote (1998) for examining the affectivity of logos and its purpose in this paper is to examine the logos marketing qualities and their ability to induce recognition. Chapter 3 will provide a thorough explanation of the above-mention criteria.. Outline of the paper The researcher opens her paper with background information, which will enable the reader to understand the components of the thesis. She believes that in order to understand the equation of martial arts’ logos with its unique characteristics, one has to take the phrase ’martial arts’ logos’ apart and comprehend its parts separately. Consequently, the paper’s chapter two will describe the history and development of logos in the West and East; chapter three is dedicated to background material on the history and general development of martial arts. Since the researcher found that philosophical and cosmological ideas are essential to the understanding of a majority of martial arts’ logo designs, she therefore included a brief explanation of Chinese cosmological concepts. Up to this point, the information was divided to Eastern and Western sources. However, all the logos examined in this research were created after the middle of the twentieth-century, and therefore, regardless of their geographic origin, were all influenced by modern Western graphic design principles. As a result, the researcher did not divide to the logos according to their locality. In chapter four the paper explains the methods of obtaining the information and the way the information was processed. The main body of the thesis employs the examination of the three research questions by individually observing and analysing each logo, as well as. 17.

(18) analysing the logos in groups in accordance to the three design criteria mentioned above. Chapter five includes the researcher’s own design of new logos and their applications. The last part of the thesis includes the researcher‘s conclusions, bibliography and appendixes. In order to understand martial arts’ logos fully, the researcher discovered that she had to rely on sources from different cultures and times, cosmological and philosophical concepts, design principles and understanding of human nature, she found that beside the simple graphic representations, martial arts’ logos comprise a whole world of meaning and ideas. Based on what she has learned, she was then able to form an idea of her own concerning the design of an efficient and recognizable martial art logo.. 18.

(19) Definitions Logo is: ► A shortening of logogram, "sign or character representing a word”. “A graphic representation or symbol of a company name, trademark, abbreviation, etc., often uniquely designed for ready recognition. ” (Dictionary.com Unabridged, 2008) Martial arts are: ► Any form of self-defence that develop physical skill and coordination (Dictionary.com Unabridged, 2008) ►Technical application of natural principles that make it possible for the smaller and weaker to defeat (or at least successfully defend against) the larger and stronger (Cartmell, 2006); ►A practice that combines body and soul for the purposes of self-defence. and self-development (Errel, 2008). Cosmology is: ►The branch of philosophy dealing with the origin and general structure of the universe, with its parts, elements, and laws (Dictionary.com Unabridged, 2008) Philosophy is: ►A system of principles for guidance in practical affairs (Dictionary.com Unabridged, 2008) ►A set of ideas or beliefs relating to a particular field or activity. (The American Heritage, 2008). 19.

(20) Chart 1: Thesis’ flow chart Introduction. Reasons. Definitions. History. Logos. Martial arts. Analysing methods. IMA table. EMA table. Designers’ table. Analysing process. Semiotics. Taxonomy. Affectivity. Design. Karen. Ronnie. Logo. Logo. Applications. Haim Logo. Applications. Applications. Conclusions Bibliography Appendixes. 20. Melanie Logo Applications.

(21) The following map shows the countries from which the research participants came from. The red dots stand for the questionnaires repliers, whereas the green dots stand for the designers that were interviewed for the research. If there was more that one reply from one place, only one dot was employed. The list of all the questionnaires’ participants can be found in table 1, appendix 4.. Image 1: The paper’s participates’ countries of origin map. 21.

(22) 2. Chapter 2: History of logos 2.1. The history of graphic marks in the West The Western historical background of this thesis relies heavily on the historical review in Per Mollerup’s Marks of Excellence, (1997) which traces and explains the origins of trademarks through Western visual history. Graphic marks are almost as old as humanity itself; Prehistoric cave paintings are the first testimony of mankind ability to express himself with graphic visuals. Alongside impressions of their immediate surroundings and depictions of animals, symbolic images such as hand signs were found in several places. With the beginning of organized religious practice, graphic images symbolizing particular idols were engraved on altars. It is logical to assume that as need and invention shaped the first household object, the creation of the craftsman mark followed suit. Trademarks researcher Per Mollerup (1997) attributes the development of trademarks to two factors, need and desire; or in his words: “A farmer might mark his cattle to protect them against theft; a potter may mark his bowl out of sheer pride”. He divides the “early equivalents of trademarks” to three groups: 1. Social identity: who is this, or who says that. 2. Ownership: who owns it, and 3. Origin: who made it. According to Mollerup, although it is impossible to find out when graphic design was first used to express identity, ownership or origin, it is reasonable to assume that is was “made with pictures and not with letters”. In his opinion “the urge to take credit, to show pride and to claim responsibility must be universal and at least partly rooted in psychological need”. (Mollerup, 1997, p.16) Within the above-mentioned three groups, Mollerup categorizes early examples of marks in order to examine their influence on modern trademarks.. 22.

(23) Group one: Early social identity signs Heraldry: Originated in medieval times, where knights who participated in tournaments of arms were covered in armour from head to toe. The herald was the official who was responsible for the identification of the fighting knights. The term was borrowed for purpose of describing and recognizing the signs that appeared on shields, helmets dress and horses. From the mid-twelve century onwards the term was related to “armorial signs… as well as their study and design”. Some researchers suggest that heraldic signs were used as early as the Crusaders time 1 in the eleventh century in order for them to recognize each other; some historians claim, “the contact with Eastern culture during the Crusaders resulted in an Oriental influence on heraldry” (As cited in Mollerup, 1997, p. 17) According to Mollerup, the design of heralds followed strict rules of lines, colours, partitions and basic shapes, as well as rhythmic signs indicating “a man’s descent and his position in the male line”. He adds that the concept and terminology of heraldry can be useful to designers of modern trademarks mainly because of the concept of simplicity existing in heraldry design. “Good heraldry is simple heraldry; it omits the non-essential”. Mollerup brings examples of more than a few coats of arms that are still used by towns, regions and countries and states “today most places in the Western world can claim their own”. He explains that some companies assume a local coat of arms as their trademark to show their place of origin, e.g. Porsche and Alfa Romeo. It is also common to see basic heraldic elements, such as shields, helmets and crowns, or ordinaries such as chevrons and gyrons 2 , integrated in trademarks, e.g. BP and Chevron, who took its name from its coat of arms trademark. Mollerup observes that airline trademarks printed on aircraft tails, which helps immediate recognition of the aircraft on the ground and on air, are “a modern adaptation of the heraldic tradition”. (Mollerup 1997 41) 1. A series of military campaigns of religious character originally formed in order to recapture Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims, later fought in Catholic Europe against external and internal enemies or heretics all through the 11th and 12th centuries. 2 Basic shield’s forms and shapes.. 23.

(24) Monograms: The word monogram, “single line” in Greek, is used today “to indicate a design made up of the initials of a person’s name”. Monograms are a very early form of identity marks. Mollerup notes that the first referral to monograms was by Greek philosopher Plutarch (AD 45-125) in the first century AD. A later testimony from the fourth century Roman orator and consul, Symmacus, suggests, “Monograms should be recognized rather than read”. (As cited in Mollerup, 1997, p. 24) Mollerup agrees to Symmacus observation, and claims that nowadays there are more than a few letter signs who are “recognized rather than read” among illiterate people. He brings up the Coca-Cola sign as an example for a letter sign which is recognized all through the world, commenting that it is recognized by people who can nor read it neither explain its literal meaning.. Group two: Ownership Branding: Branding, a mark indicating identity or ownership that is burned on the hide of an animal with a hot iron, is an early form of ownership marking. Mollerup reports that early Egyptian tombstone paintings show branded domestic animals. He adds that in the USA brands are organized and registered in state brand books. Brands are usually made with simple lines motifs. Under ownership marks, Mollerup also includes other methods of marking cattle and property, such as earmarks and farm marks.. Third group: Origin Ceramic marks: Mollerup finds that ceramic artefacts are an endless source of marks. Greek ceramic vases had two different kinds of marks; written signs and incised signs. Roman building elements were sometimes marked with embossed signs, hinting at the brick or clay origin. It was usually done with a bronze or oak stamps.. 24.

(25) According to Mollerup, in the first three centuries AD, North Italy had a thriving industry in oil lamps which were incised with trademarks and seemed to have been example of mass production, since the distinctive trademarks were found all around the Roman Empire. However, Mollerup speculates that it might also have been a simple matter of copying the trader’s well-known trademark. He adds that from the sixteen century onwards, all forms of ceramic objects “have been marked with letters, figures and pictorial signs”. The marks might clearly point at the maker and year of manufacturing, or be more abstract. Mollerup also mentions that the ceramic “marks have been copied, paraphrased and used as an inspiration by other manufacturers”.. Stonemasons’ marks: Medieval stonemasons were more than manual workers; they designed and engineered their building, and took pride in their mastered skills, knowledge and creativity. They were organized by associations and, as Mollerup puts it, “guarded their trade with secrecy and mysticism”. The free masons organization derived from those stonemasons’ associations. From the twelfth century and all through the next six centuries, stonemasons used marks to identify their work. Mollerup speculates that other than sheer pride of their work, it might be from the simple reason of identifying it in order to get paid. Mollerup quotes a theory developed by Franz Rziha in his book “Studies of Stonemasons’ Marks”, who claims that the stonemasons’ marks were based on grids “that were themselves based on the square, triangle and circle…. the secret geometric basis on which the stonemasons constructed their buildings”. (As cited in Mollerup, 1997, p. 34). Hallmarks Hallmarks are marks used to stamp gold, silver and platinum articles to prove their established standards of purity. The name related to Goldsmiths’ Hall in London. According to Mollerup, hallmarks generally included four marks: a mark indicating the metal’s substance; gold, silver etc, a mark of the place the. 25.

(26) metal was evaluated, the date of evaluation in special lettering and the sponsor’s mark.. Printer’s marks: Printing was invented by Gutenberg in the fifteen century and quickly became wide spread through Europe. Printers’ marks of that time were, in Mollerup opinion, varied in “artistic quality and execution”. Mollerup points out that the marks, cut in wood or metal, were printed either on the title page or the last page of the book, in black or red ink. Originally of simple design, they later became more complex and decorative. He adds that the early marks could be “a pure pictorial device, often including orb and cross or orb and four-crosses motifs which symbolized the world and the Christian faith”. More elaborate marks could have the printers’ initials, a motto, and often an illustration that was a visual pun on the printer’s name. Some used heraldic signs or shields. Printers’ marks were not protected and could have been used by more than one printer. Moreover, some printers could use more than one variation of their mark. Printers’ marks were later replaced with publishers’ marks.. Watermarks: Watermarks were used by paper manufacturers in order to show the paper’s origin, as well as the paper’s quality and size. They were impressed in the paper while in the mould. According to Mollerup, the first watermark dated from the thirteen century in Italy, he indicates that an anthology of watermarks from that time “shows more than 18,000 different watermarks organized according to motifs”. Mollerup also observes that today the mere existence of a watermark in a piece of paper serves as a proof of its quality.. Furniture marks: Mollerup discusses French and Danish furniture manufacturers in the sixteen to nineteen centuries, which, regardless of demands to mark their furniture,. 26.

(27) more than often neglected to do so. Even when marked, the marks were of printed indistinct paper labels. In America, The furniture made by the Shakers was clearly marked from 1873 onwards. Today, as in every other field of design, quality furniture is marked. (Mollerup 1997 19-40) To summarise Mollerup findings, every aspect of the creative and commercial life in the West in the last twenty-one centuries was followed closely by a graphic representation, whether in order to create recognition, make a profit or preserve ones’ rights. Those graphic marks were executed with a variety of methods and techniques but were widely recognized for what they were by the average laymen. In fact, the researcher finds that the only difference between the twelfth and the twenty-first centuries in respect of trademark design is nothing but advanced manufacturing technology and communication availability.. Although mainly observing the big picture of graphic design development rather than focusing on logo history, historian Phillip Meggs (1992) mentions a few sources that can prove the existence of trademarks in earlier times. According to him, one of the earlier discoveries of trademarks was found in the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum and proved that even as early as the Roman times, handwritten trademarks were used to identify a firm or place of origination of handcrafted products. (Meggs, 1992, p. 37) Meggs links the enhancement of new art techniques to the developing and circulating of trademarks throughout Europe. In the beginning of the thirteencentury in Italy, watermark technique was the common procedure for creating graphic images, and the majority of early trademarks for paper mills, as well as of individual craftsmen, were created this way. (p. 61) Woodblock techniques, which have originated in China, found their way into Europe in the fifteen century, and had a great affect in exposing the masses to visual information. Since the majority of people were illiterate, the first printed material mostly contained illustrations, only later accompanied by texts in leaflets and books. According to Meggs, in the medieval times the. 27.

(28) guilds used propriety marks as means of controlling trades. (p. 380) and by the 1700s most Europe’s traders and dealers had a trademark or stamp. The growth of manufacturing and marketing after the industrial revolution triggered visual identifications and trademarks to gain in value and importance. (p. 202) In Meggs opinion, the first comprehensive visual identity program was Peter Berhem’s 1908 work for IEG. Behrens’ AEG trademark was created and copyrighted The AEG graphic identity program used a logo, a typeface and a consistent layout, the three elements that would be the basis of any corporate identity design in the second half of the twentieth century. (pp. 223-228) The biggest development in visual identification systems started after the Second World War, with the market’s increasing demand for design images. Technological developments and productive capacity, together with growing capitalistic economies, mainly in the USA, caused the manufacturers to realize they needed design to help them make their product more visible and supply it with a long lasting reputation. (p. 380) In the 1930s and 1940s graphic design in America was strongly influenced by theories and styles coming from the continent, either through the work of immigrant designers or with Americans who visited and studied in Europe. The leading influential styles were Modernism and Art Deco, joined by Surrealism and Dada. According to design historian Roger Remington (2003), the 1950s post-war economic boom in America caused companies to ”look critically at their trademarks, logotypes and brand identities”. He quotes designer Cine Pineles saying, “After William Golden designed CBS’ logo, everyone had to have their own symbol”. (As cited in Remington, 2003, p.149) The development of logos from the 1950s onwards is entwined with that of graphic design in general and corporate design in particular. In the next few paragraphs the paper will describes a few trends that have influenced graphic design from the 1950s to the end of the century, although without references to specific logos. During the 1950s and the 1960s, many American designers were doing corporate visual identification as a major design activity. Among those well known designers such as Paul Rand, Saul Bass, Ivan Chermayeff and others.. 28.

(29) In the 1960s, a systematic design program was created by two elements that had fused; one was the growth and development of the International typographic style, the other the visual identity movement. Design entities like The Ulm Institute of Design and Container Corporation developed a grid system that helped in standardizing visual communications and emphasised the importance of clear and legible typography. It was an era of in-house designers and companies enhanced efforts to create advanced standard corporate identities.. Design was divided into two camps; the pure. Modernists, who employed grids, clean and rational design, and the designers holding a playful, more personal approach to design, who were more in the spirit of the era, also reacting to political and social issues. Remington declares, “ Graphically, the 1960s brought a new emphasis on the concept, message and the means by which the message could be best communicated.” The advertising industry “mirrored the freedom in the culture of the time.” (pp. 159-160) The 1970s in America brought a more conservative approach to advertising, as well as the “Federal Design Improvement Program”, a program to upgrade and. improve. the. quality. and. effectiveness. of. governmental. visual. communication, interior and industrial design, landscape environment and architecture. The public signage system developed for this program was a milestone in the design of signs. The 1970s were also the beginning of Post Modernism, which began in America and spreaded to Europe and the rest of the. world.. Post. Modernism. was,. in. Charles. Jenck. (1990). words. “fundamentally the eclectic mixture of any tradition with that of the immediate past. It is both the continuation of Modernism and its transcendence” (Jencks, 1990, p. 6). Post Modernism architecture was an important influence on graphic design, bringing about new colours, textures and patterns. In Remington words “The eclecticism of 1980s looked to all styles as having meaning and relevance…” (Remington, 2003, p.175) In 1984 the Apple Macintosh computer was introduced, launching the digital era in graphic design, causing graphic design to change indefinitely. On one hand, it made it possible for designers to express endless visual ideas, on the other, the technology became too accessible. Remington reports that the computer was seen “ as the end and not the means”. He is quoting Paul Rand 29.

(30) saying, “The language of computers is the language of technology, not the language of design” (As cited in Remington, 2003, p.178). Internet became operational in 1986, beginning to change the design world in enabling almost everyone, within a decade, to gain easy access to design patterns and software, as well as to endless sources of information. In his book “No More Rules”, design writer Rick Poynor (2003) reports that in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Britain, designers associated with punk rock created anti-design, ignoring any rules and conventions, creating anarchistic, aggressive designs. Some of those designers were without formal graphic design education. However, punk style design was later adopted by more established designers and was used in the design of magazines. (Poynor, 2003, pp. 39-42) The late 1980s and early 1990s graphic design was characterised by “breaking the rules”. Designers were ignoring grids and conventions, and constantly trying to create more innovative designs. However, according to Poynor, since the mid-1990s, this phenomenon is weakening. He claims that “graphic design without any rules would cease to be graphic design and this is even more the case with typography.” (Poynor, 2003, p.16).. Another. phenomenon of the 1980s was quoting early styles and existing source materials, such as Constructivist, Futurist or vernacular graphics, sometimes to the point of an almost exact copy. (pp. 77-81) In the late 1980s and early 1990s graphic designers were experimenting with deconstructive ideas: playing with typography and organization of space, creating visual devices and irregular shapes. Poynor claims that the 1990s graphic design was more open, inventive and self-confidant, and has employed a wide range of stylistic possibilities. Among them a strong retro style using ready-made line art vintage images to create a new look. The grunge style of 1990s was an offspring of the 1980s punk style. Poynor claims that the main different between the two was technology, since punk designs were mostly done by hand, whereas grunge was “a product of powerful digital tools that potentially allowed anyone with the talent and inclination to knock up a typeface in a day.” (p. 65). 30.

(31) 2.2. The history of graphic marks in the East 2.2.1. Graphic marks in China In his introduction to “Chinese Graphic Design in the Twentieth Century”, design historian Scott Minick (1990) mourns the “little concern [that] has been given to documenting, much less saving, examples of China’s long design history” (Minick and Ping, 1990, p.8). When observing China’s history of design it is obvious that there is very little evidence to the development of design in general and identity design in particular. The researcher believes that the small evidence of identity design, especially when compared to its parallel development in the West, can be related to a lesser need for identity marks due to the early development of personal seals in China. The first Chinese seals appeared in Shang dynasty (sixteen-century BC), around the same time the first Chinese script was developed. Early Shang dynasty examples of bronze seals were found among other bronzeengraved artefacts in an archaeological excavation in Yinshu, the ruins of Shang dynasty’s last capital, in present day Anping, Henan Province. When the first Chinese dynasty, Xia, was overthrown by the Tang, the first ruler of the Shang dynasty took possession of the imperial seal and so established his right to rule the empire. Seals are a proof of authority; they can roughly be divided into three kinds, the imperial seal, the official seal and the personal seal. The imperial seals’ engravings usually referred to receiving a mandate of heaven, or being the successor of heaven, and were usually big. Lesser official seals confirmed the bearer’s official state and authority, and were usually small enough to be carried on the official’s belt. Official seals were under strict regulations regarding their shapes, materials and in early times even in the colour of ink used; personal seals prove the bearer’s identity, and since not under any official regulations, they portray the greatest variety of materials, shapes and forms, and styles of calligraphy used. Personal seals can also be divided into three categories: seals with names, used in private life to sign artworks, bank statements etc; collector seals that are mainly used for the purpose of authenticating pieces of art, and leisure seals, usually inscribed with short. 31.

(32) versus or poems. Obviously, people can own a variety of seals for use in different occasions. (Chinese seals, 2000) The design of seals employs a set of aesthetics grids and guidelines. Although seal script is still the most commonly used, all five calligraphy scripts can be employed, each seal is unique in design. The seals’ imprints can be red on white, (zhuwen, 朱文), white on red (baiwen 白文) or a mix of both (zhubaiwen Xiangjianyin 朱白文相間印). In short, the researcher believes that unlike the state of affairs in the West, there was no need for an identity mark to develop in China due to the early employment of personal and official seals. China’s ruling and military classes have traditionally employed a variety of graphic elements, usually embroidered on clothes, to symbolize hierarchy. The social class or military position of the wearer dictated the use of certain animals’ images as well as the garment’s colours. For example, the dragon and the phoenix were used exclusively by the emperor and empress. Daoist monks wore robes that were decorated by auspicious symbols and animals’ images. In Chinese paintings, elements of fauna and flora had symbolic meanings. As a result, the use of graphic elements was identified with certain positions and society roles, and therefore restricted and not easily available to people who were not in an official or religious position. In the first chapter of “Chinese Graphic Design in the Twentieth Century”, Scott Minick and Jiao Ping (1990) discuss the history of Chinese graphic design. They believe that “only through the yin and yang 3 principle, which unifies both opposing and complementary forces, is creation given balance”. Based on those principles, they suggest, “Chinese design strives for a completeness that transcends the physical expression itself”. They point out that the main difference between Western and Chinese design is that whilst in Western design “the emphasis is more often on positive form to express that which is material, Chinese design traditionally emphasizes the absent of form in an attempt to stress the spiritual. It is, in fact through this absent of form in a Chinese work that the design is said to be revealed” (Minick and Ping, 1990, p.11). They mention that Chinese artworks are often measured by the 3. For an explanation on yin-yang principles, see 3.3. 32.

(33) transmitting of qi 4 through the work. Minick and Jiao believe this is due to the influence of Confucian traditions, which defines artistic excellence, or in fact “an educated or morally superior man”, 5 through the mastery of, among others, calligraphy and painting.. The process of mastering those arts. believed to bestow the person with an understanding of the harmony and order of the universe. Minick and Jiao notes that Chinese were the first to develop three essential techniques: paper making, invented as early as the first century AD; block prints, its earliest surviving example from 868 AD; and movable typography, invented in the eleventh century AD. The development of book design followed suit, Minick and Jiao refer to Ming dynasty writer, Shao Jingbang ∗ , who claims the earliest book was printed in 636 AD. (p.11-14) Song dynasty (960–1279 AD) was the most prosperous and advanced economy in the medieval world, with flourishing commercial and social life, as well as great achievements in arts and calligraphy.. Prominent merchant. families and private businesses were allowed to occupy a variety of small industries that were not government-operated monopolies, creating a competitive environment that encouraged the first creation of corporate design and trademarks. Unfortunately, not many examples of those trademarks had survived. According to Minick and Jiao, during the Song dynasty designing and printing reached high degree of quality; “special emphasis was placed on the creation of designs that evoked a sense of simplicity, honesty and elegance”. The book designers of the time paid a special attention to the title, the subjects and the calligraphic characters, creating a strong organic relationship between the three. Minick and Jiao mention the first woodcut pictorial catalogue of the Imperial Palace bronze artefacts collection, commissioned by Emperor Hui Zong between 1101-1125 AD. During the Northern Song Dynasty (1127-1279), the introduction of etched bronze plates, which enabled mass printing, produced the first commercial 4. Qi is internal energy; breath; the energy of breathing, As written in “The Rights of Zhou”, 2nd century BC. See 3.1 ∗ The reference did not provide the name in Chinese characters 5. 33.

(34) design for ‘Jinan Liu’s Fine Needle Shop’ in present day Shandong province. The shop printed advertisings and paper wrappers, along with a “highly developed trademark of a white rabbit holding a sewing needle”. The inscription reads ‘Note the white rabbit at the front door as a mark’. (p. 15). Image 2: Jinan Liu’s Fine Needle Shop sign. China’s first Trademark Registration System was created by Emperor Guanxu’s, who succumbed to pressure from the West regarding the profits of Western companies in China at the time, and was forced to publish the first law regulating commercial registration of trademarks in August 4, 1904. Researcher Zou Xuchu 左旭初 (2004) who collected all publications of the law, believes that although Jinan Liu’s Fine Needle Shop trademark is the earlier officially authorized trademark, earlier ones must have existed, but unfortunately did not survive. (100 years anniversary, 2004) Regardless of the invention of movable type, credited to Bi Sheng ∗ between the years 1041 and 1048, woodblocks remained the principle method of printing in China until the nineteen century; Minick and Jiao explain that the vast amount of Chinese characters which caused difficulties in printing as well as storage was the reason for the movable type’s lesser popularity. (p.16) Minick and Jiao mentioned that according to Chinese tradition, the study of art comprised of the artist diligently copying his master’s works for years until his skill and expression of qi surpassed that of his master. Unlike the West, artistic originality was not required, and “individual experimentation went unrecognised”. According to Minick and Jiao, the exposure of nineteen∗. The reference did not provide the name in Chinese characters. 34.

(35) century Chinese artist to Western methods raised a demand for classes that would teach technical and scientific methods of painting. (p.17) In the beginning of the twentieth-century the first art school teaching Western painting techniques, Shanghai Institute of Fine Art, was founded. Minick and Jiao report that the school introduced, for the first time in China, oil painting, two-point perspective and the development of source lighting and shadows in still-life compositions. It was also the first to accept female students and employ nude models. The school combined training both in Western and Chinese traditions. (p.18). In the late 1920s, many advertising agencies opened in China’s major cities, catering mostly to foreign companies. The demand for Western educated artists and designers increased, and many Chinese artists sought training in the United States before returning to work in China. Many companies opened their own in-house design departments. Advertising department developed in conjunction with print houses, and later as independent entities. Minick and Jiao describe a heavy affect of Western-influenced ideas on Chinese society in that period, but emphasize the “overwhelming ability of Chinese culture to absorb distinctly foreign ideas while retaining its own identity” (p.19) A group of designers led by Tao Yuanqing objected to the foreign influence and worked to explore alternative design directions influenced by traditional Chinese patterns and decorative motifs. (p. 23) However, according to Minick and Jiao the influence of The May Fourth Movement 6 , which introduced a new aesthetic vision for Chinese art and design and was significant in establishing a strong connection between writers and designers, was “enormously important”. (p. 25) Lu Xun (魯迅) was a writer and scholar who, according to Minick and Ping, “legitimised modern Chinese design by encouraging a full exploration of its expressive potential”; An admirer of Western techniques, he nevertheless warned his contemporaries about randomly applying them , and encouraged the use of traditional patterns. His strongest influence was on the design of books and literary magazines. He preached in favour of bringing art closer to the people and letting it express the human struggle. (p. 26) 6. Originally formed in 1919 to protest again the government’s acceptance of the unfavorable Versailles peace treaty.. 35.

(36) In the 1930s Shanghai was China's most metropolitan city, and design works produced there during this period reflected foreign influences originating from the city's numerous foreign concession zones, through which the customs and products of other countries entered local life. (p.35) Shanghai artists who trained in Japan or Europe were inspired, either directly or indirectly, by Western design. They embraced the worldwide art and design trends, in particular Art Nouveau, Art Deco and Cubism, integrating and experimenting with geometric shapes, ornamentation, bold colours and strong patterns. Western art styles enriched the expressive vocabulary of composition and form in China's emerging modern design, and the new resources were artfully combined with elements form China’s own artistic productions. Thus, the output of Chinese modern design was quite distinctive, moving beyond what had been simply imported from the West. Shanghai’s best-known design products of the time were Art Nouveau styled calendars, which also served as advertisements. Minick and Jiao reports that in the late 1930s and beginning of the 1940s, with the rise of Maoist ideas, design was divided between two schools, the Shanghai “cosmopolitan style, progressing urban taste” and Yanan’s aesthetics philosophy, inspired by Lu Xun’s ideas and drawing from folk design traditions. Traditional techniques such as paper cuts and minority painting, mixed with political ideology “formed a hybrid statement of great simplicity and force”. In the political climate of the mid 1950’s, the influence of Yanan’s educated artists grew, while the vanishing Western influenced signalled the end of the Shanghai traditions. (p. 102) With the founding of the People Republic of China most of the graphic design was harnessed to the republic’s propaganda efforts. Commercial graphic design was seen as a symbol of Western life and unnecessary consumer products. Minick and Jiao describe most designs made at that period, as “bold, forceful images of labour and struggle”. (p. 114) They claim that in the late 1950s designers were encouraged again to create folk art revolutionary designs, a style that was later resurrected during the Cultural Revolution. (p. 112) In the first half of the 1960s, a brief revival of creativity and innovation brought brief renewal of artistic freedom and innovation, in which artist reverted to employing “pensive, almost spiritual vision” (p. 114) But later, during the 36.

(37) Cultural Revolution, most of the People Republic’s design was inspired by Russian propaganda design. The first graphic designers in post Maoist China were inspired by Hong-Kong designers, who had followed the Western graphic design tradition and combined it with Chinese motifs.. 2.2.1.1. Martial arts logos in China The researcher has found no written sources revealing the history of martial arts logos in China; the following paragraphs are based on a conversation with acclaimed bagua teacher and Chinese martial arts researcher Luo Dexiu 羅德修 (2008) from Taiwan.. Luo declares that in ancient times martial arts were connected directly to wars. He suggests that the first appearance of identity signs was as early as eastern Zhou dynasty, in time of Spring and Autumn and Warring states periods. The warring armies carried a flag depicting the rulers’ name; similar to heraldry signs in middle age Europe or samurais signs in Japan. In the following Qin dynasty, many of the instructors who taught martial arts to the rival armies became unemployed and opened their own schools, using their names and reputation to attract the public. Luo observes a pattern in the history of each dynasty: starting with a strong ruler attaining government and establishing a few years of stability and prosperity, in which the practice of martial arts was usually prohibited; to a gradual decaying of the government, and the starting of rebellion. The rebels of those times either originated from or employed martial arts groups to assist in obtaining government. Luo claims that in time of rebellion, the groups declared their identity by carrying flags and signs depicting their names. He suggests that in periods when the practice of martial arts was forbidden, it continued undercover in establishments such as the Chinese opera, temple celebrations and acrobatic performances. At the end of the Qing dynasty and the beginning of the republic many martial arts associations were formed with the intention of helping to make the country stronger. Both Luo Dexiu and wing-chun teacher Lo Man Kam suggest those associations employed the first martial arts logos as we know them today.. 37.

(38) Luo explains the lack of documented material on the subject to the fact that unlike in the West, up until the twentieth-century, most documentation in China was done by the emperors and courts and not by independent researchers or higher education scholars. Therefore, the records of graphic images employed as logos are limited to those used by court and army. Luo’s opinion is supported by the words of Mimick, mentioned earlier in this paper. Historian Meir Shahar (2008) who researched the Shaolin temple’s history confirms that until the twentieth century the Shaolin temple never had a logo, and the logo they eventually ended up using was created outside the temple. (Probably for public relation purposes A.E.). (M. Shahar, Personal communication, August 29, 2008). 2.2. Heraldic signs in Japan When researching the history of logos, one cannot ignore the heraldic signs in Japan, which have influenced the aesthetics of graphic design both in Japan and outside it. The earliest records of heraldic signs are from the year 701; writer John W. Dower (1971) describes those as “the early examples of fixed designs used as a denotation of person and status in Japan” and adds that the images depicted were all ancient Chinese emblems that were influenced, as were other aspects of life in the Japanese court during those times, by Tang China. According to Dower, when the custom of adopting family emblems started spreading among the aristocracy and warriors a few centuries later, the graphic images employed were borrowed from Chinese textile motifs (Dower, 1971, p. 3-4). During the Heian period (794-1185), the last period of classical Japan, new aesthetics forms were cultivated, among them the Yamato-e school of painting, calligraphy and esoteric Buddhism.. During this time, original. Japanese motifs were developed. Among the courtly class, the custom of having an identity mark started developing at that time, both from vanity and from practical reasons: during the second half of the eleventh-century, the traffic of carriages coming in and out of the court caused a severe. 38.

(39) disturbance, initiating certain noble families to have their carriages marked with “a single design, repeated over the entire vehicle”. (p. 5) The warrior class adopted heraldry later than the courtly class. In the Gempei War (1180-1185) that signified the beginning of the feudal period, reports of battles show that the armies employed plain one-colour banners. Later, in fourteen-century battles, armies were reported to fly two to three hundred family crests. After the Gempei War, formal crests were depicted on every kind of martial equipment, from flags to clothes. According to Dower, most of those crests were “plain geometric forms and simple representational figures”. However, in later Muromachi period (1336-1573), following the gradual continuation of relations between warriors and court, crests were sometimes changed, and became more elaborate. (pp. 6-8) In the time of the Northern and Southern courts (1336-1392) heraldry in Japan became a system of family crests. In Dower’s opinion, the uniqueness of the crests’ design is not only due to their “fineness of conception”, but also “the tremendous number of variations which are based on common motifs” which he sees as a design advantage, forcing the designers to be very observant and find “an infinite variety and delight in the smallest and most familiar of things”, not unlike Japanese poetry. The down side of this tendency was that since no new motifs were introduced, as a result, unconnected families sometimes ended up bearing similar crests. Dower describes the design of the crests as almost “always intrinsically harmonious” and usually monochromatic.. The warrior’s crests were now “painted, embroidered,. woven, lacquered or worked on iron on almost every part of the warrior’s equipment”. (pp. 10-11) Dower reports that most families had more than one emblem, the average being two or three for a family, but some used up to seven or nine different designs. He adds that the crests gradually got more refined in their design. The changes in social needs and fashion influenced the size and symmetry, and requirements of weaving and dyeing modified the conception. (pp 14-15) The Edo period (1603 - 1868) brought about a period of peace. War paraphernalia was made redundant and martial arts turned into a pastime activity. During that time most families chose the one official crest that represented them best. Some books of heraldry were published, catering both 39.

(40) to a curious public and to professional artisans like dyers and weavers. During the Edo period, crests became popular with every social class; Dower indicates that the designs of laymen crests were taken from the emblems of great warriors or famous Kabuki actors. Dower notes that by the end of Edo period even the members of the outcast eta 7 class were wearing crested clothes. From decorating war paraphernalia and clothes, crests began to appear on any household item, and were even engraved on roof tiles, pillars and walls; shops used them as trademarks. (pp. 16-20) Dower summarizes by pointing out that after all families had crests, cities had them, and “now they are used by corporations” (p. 23).. 3. Chapter 3: History and philosophy of martial arts 3.1. History of martial arts 3.1.1. Martial arts in the west Martial arts in their various forms have been known since the beginning of mankind. Where there are two people, there is always a chance for a fight, in fact, some forms of wrestling are even observed among great apes. One of the early depictions of martial arts was found in a tomb of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, 2000 BC, showing wrestling techniques. Verbal descriptions of hand-to-hand combat with spear, sword and shield were found in the Iliad, a Greek epic attributed to Homer from the eight century BC and in the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh from seventh century BC, in the Greek Olympic Games of 648 BC, a wrestling and boxing style called pankration was introduced. Weapons, such as spear and bow, have existed since the Palaeolithic period; Bladed weapons appeared in the Neolithic period. Much later, in Middle Ages Europe, fencing and jousting were popular, both as weapons of war and in sport tournaments. An empty hand wrestling style was developed in Persia around 132 BC - 226 AD. In India, a few styles of fighting that included both empty hand and weapons were developed in the early centuries AD 7. The unclean class of Japanese society, mainly contained tanners and butchers.. 40.

(41) The next few paragraphs will discuss the history of the martial arts that are represented in this paper. Since most of the logos in this paper are of martial arts that originated in Asia, the information is presented according to the country of origin and not by styles. However, exceptions are made for Brazilian jujitsu and Capoeira.. 3.1.2. Martial arts in China There are two main myths surrounding the origin of Chinese martial arts. The first describes a fifth-century monk named Bodhidharma (Damo 達摩), some say of Indian origin and some say of Persian origin, who introduced Zen (chan 禪) to the Shaolin monks. According to the legend, having observed that their bodies were weak from unceasing studying and meditation, he introduces some physical exercises to make them stronger. Three of the Chinese martial arts’ milestone exercises are attributed to him: the yijin jing, muscle changing classic, the xisui jing, marrow cleansing classic, and the eighteen lohan exercises, which are considered to be one of the foundations to the development of Chinese boxing. The second myth describes Zhang Sanfeng (張三豐 960-1279 or 1279-1389 BC), a mythological Daoist hermit who developed the taijiquan after observing a fight between a crane and a snake. Some stories accredit him with the development of neijia ( 內家 internal martial arts) in general. He was associated with the Daoist monastery in Wudang and is believed to have become immortal. Another legend claims that the Yellow Emperor, (2698-2398 BC) was the one who introduced martial arts to China. He wrote essays on medicine, astrology and the martial arts and even developed a form of martial arts called jiaodi. There is evidence of martial arts called shoubo 手搏 that was practiced through the Shang dynasty (1766–1066 BC) According to Chinese martial historian Stanley Henning (1981), the first relation to martial arts in Chinese literature is found in The Rights of Zhou 周禮, one of three ancient ritual texts listed among the classics of Confucianism. and completed in second century BC The text lists six arts that should be. 41.

(42) mastered by “an educated or morally superior man”. Among them archery and charioteering that are “clearly martial” (Henning, 1981, p. 174) The Classic of Rights 禮記, another of the ancient ritual texts, written in the Warring State Period, mentions a wrestling style called jiaoli 角力, which later became a competitive sport. The famous Tang dynasty poet, Libo, dedicated a poem to a skilfully performed sword dance. In Henning’s opinion, “this perfection of form in this dance-like manoeuvres has been an outstanding characteristics of the Chinese martial arts through the ages, and is the essence of wushu as practices in China today” He mentions the Han history bibliographies, completed around 90 A.D., that list archery, boxing and fencing as military skills. The bibliographies also state the above-mentioned shoubu. (Ibis) Daoist texts such as Laozi’s Daodejing 8 and Zhuangzi 9 mention martial arts’ principles, psychology and practice. Sun Zi’s (Sun Tzu) book The Art of War 10 contains ideas that are employed in the Chinese martial arts. A practice called taoyin 導引 , similar in principles to qigong, preceded taijiquan and was practiced by Daoists as early as 500 BC Around 220 BC, the noted physician, Huatuo, composed the ‘Five Animals Play’ - a serious of exercises based on the movement of the tiger, deer, monkey, bear, and crane. In Han dynasty times (206 BC - 9 AD) the Chinese empire governed areas from Turkestan to Korea. In Henning’s opinion, Chinese martial arts that spread throughout those countries were possibly the ancestors of Korean taekwondo. The official examination system for recruiting military personal formed in Tang dynasty (618-907) included proficiency in martial arts skill. Henning describes that during the Song dynasty (960-1279) the army sought out skilled martial artists as instructors, some famous figures who received such instruction were Song dynasty patriot Yuefei and Ming dynasty’s general Qi Jiguang, who’s records provide a sound description of a martial arts training program for soldiers recruited among the peasantry. (Ibis) 8. Daodejing, or Tao Te Ching 道德經, is a classical Daoist text written in the six century by Laozi 老子. Together with Zhuangzi considered being the most influential Daoist theoretician. 9 Zhuangzi 莊子 is a Chinese philosopher from fourth century BC. 10 Written during the six-century BC, considered to be a brilliant work on military tactics and strategies.. 42.

(43) Henning reports that Qi Jiguang also developed a thirty-two movement practice form. All the form’s movements and half of the movements’ names can be found in later taijiquan Chen and Yang style forms practiced today. (p. 175) Although there are evidence that Shaolin monks participated in battles as early as Tang dynasty times, the first evidence of them receiving a formal martial arts training is from the Ming dynasty. Historian Meir Shahar (2001) reports of at least forty late Ming dynasty sources that prove Shaolin monks had been practicing the martial arts at the time; according to him those sources “reveal that martial practice had become such an integral element of Shaolin monastic life that the monks created new Buddhist lore to justify it.” (Shahar, 2001, p. 364) Shaolin monks’ reputation spread all over and in the middle if the sixteencentury many military experts travelled to Shaolin temple to study their techniques. The above-mentioned sources described in details both the empty hand and staff fighting techniques, the latter being what made the monastery famous. According to Shahar, the earliest manual of Shaolin martial arts was dedicated to staff fighting and was compiled around 1610. The Shaolin staff methods received many praises from military experts, among them the above-mentioned Qi Jiguang. (pp. 365, 373) According to Henning, in Qing dynasty time, the resentment toward the Manchu ruler induced the creation of secret societies and encouraged the development of myth surrounding the origins of the arts. In Ming patriot Huang Zongxi’s 11 epitaph to Wang Zhengnan, an acclaimed martial arts teacher, he refers to the Buddhist Shaolin monastery based martial arts as “external”, in contrast to Wang’s “internal” school that “uses Taoist yielding concepts to defeat an opponent as opposed to the aggressive techniques of the external school.” Henning explains that Huang used the comparison as analogy for external influences, i.e. Manchu, verses original internal systems, i.e. the Chinese. In any case, it is the first reference of dividing Chinese martial arts to external and internal. (Henning, 1981, p. 175). 11. Huang Zongxi 黃宗羲 1610-1695, was the name of a Chinese political theorist, philosopher, and soldier during the latter part of the Ming dynasty into the early part the Qing.. 43.

(44) In the middle of the nineteen-century China suffered from civil conflicts, foreign forces assaults and natural disasters that instigated the raising of private militia and protection agencies. Martial artists found work as bodyguards and escorts to transported goods. Secret societies and religious sects such as The Eight-Trigrams, Hangmen society, the Harmonious Fists (Boxers), Small Knives, Big Knives and more flourished among the peasantry. According to Henning, their training incorporated Daoist and Buddhist religious practice with martial arts techniques, inducing the development of new martial arts styles. Henning claims that many of the common myths regarding the martial arts origins developed or gathered strength at that time, when many of those styles claimed to trace their origins to either Shaolin monastery, Zhang Sanfeng or Song dynasty patriot, Yuefei. (p. 176) Shahar mentions that Henan province, in which Shaolin temple is located, was a “hotbed of martial arts”. Taijiquan developed in nearby Chenjiagou around the seventeen-century; baguazhang originated there in the eighteencentury; xingyiquan, which originated in Shanxi, was practiced in Henan, and bajiquan originated either in Henan or the neighbouring Hebei. (Shahar, 2001, p. 388) In the beginning of the twentieth-century, warlords hired martial artists to train their private armies in hand-to-hand combat and cold weapon use. In 1928, the Central Martial Arts Academy was formed in Nanjing, as an effort to develop martial spirit in the people. Henning describes, “an attempt was made to popularise the martial arts in national wide physical educational program and to use them in military and police training”. One of the manuals for military training that was published at that time was based on xingyiquan techniques. In the 1930s historian Tang Hao and his contemporary Xu Jedong began the first serious research of martial arts, trying to refute the common myth and establish historical facts concerning their origins. With the founding of the People Republic of China, martial arts, now called wushu (武樹), came under the guidance of the People’s Physical Culture and Sport Commission. The communists identified the popularity of the arts and their value as a physical exercise and training discipline. Between 1953 and 1965, standardized sets of changquan (長拳 long boxing), and weapons sets were developed, standard rules for competitions were arranged and a standard short taijiquan form was created. However, during the Cultural 44.

(45) Revolution some aspects of martial arts training, as many other traditional practices, were seen as ‘feudal’ and prohibited, turning martial arts to a mix of sport and exercise (p. 177). Nowadays, the practice of Chinese martial arts is divided between two schools; some systems follow the traditional approach, which put emphasize on fighting skills, whereas the others practice wushu, emphasizing the sport and performance aspects of the arts.. 3.1.3. Martial arts in Japan Japanese martial arts have originated in the samurai era, in which the use of weapons was restricted to the warrior classes. The arts originated from the necessity of combat, and later developed into a spiritual goal that was achieved through perfecting martial skills. Japanese martial arts are divided to kurio and gendai budo. Kurio, literally traditional or old school, relates to preMeiji Restoration styles that are looked upon as representing the true Japanese martial arts, having evolved from feudal martial culture. Gendai budo, or modern martial way, is a generic term used to describe Japanese martial arts that are considered "modern", i.e. either the art was founded after the beginning of the Meiji Restoration in 1866, or an art practiced since before 1866 changed its methodology and is considered a sports or selfimprovement art. The kurio arts include sumo, jujitsu, sword styles like iaido and more. Gendai budo styles include judo, kendo, aikido, karate and more. Japanese martial arts are divided not only into kurio and gendai budo, but also by the existence of separated styles of weapons and empty-hand, whereas Chinese martial arts styles usually combine the practices of both. The researcher feels that in order to achieve a fuller picture of Japanese martial arts, an elaborate discussion of one representative of kurio style and one representative of gendai budo style is in order. Therefore, the following paragraphs will illustrate the different development of martial arts in Japan by describing the paths of jujitsu, a kurio art, and karate, a gendai budo art. Art historian Kevin Gray Carr (1993) refers the tradition of jujitsu to mythological combats depicted in early Japanese history. One of those myths 45.

(46) story describes the battle between a commoner and a divine wrestler for control of the land. The wrestler won the islands for the sun goddess and her descendants, the people of Japan. According to Carr, until the early sixteencentury, the warriors (步士bushi) were supposed to follow the do (道 dao), “a path of pure and direct spirituality that was said to be an essential part of being a warrior”. (Carr, 1993, p.179) Carr describes a variety of techniques that predated the formal style we know today. The styles included empty-hands grappling techniques for two-armored men, simulating a situation in which the samurais lost their swords. Reflecting on the question of the presence of the do concept in early times, he claims that although Kamakura era (1185–1333) warriors spoke of kyûba no michi (“the way of horse and bow”), which integrated Shintô 12 and Confucians thought and “stressed bravery in battle and loyalty to one’s lord”, in fact, only a small part of them was aware to or practiced the do. During the Edo period (1603–1868) there was a significant rise in numbers of martial arts schools specializing in empty-hand forms, whereas the older, battle oriented martial arts declined. During that time, Neo-Confucians ideas spread in Japan; the samurais lost their lands and were forced to either become peasants or city bureaucrats. Loosing its military connotations, martial arts were practiced along other forms of traditional rituals, such as tea ceremony, writing, painting and dancing, in which the bushi were expected to prove proficiency. The merchant classes of Edo period were wealthy and enjoyed a fair amount of free time. Many of them started showing interest in martial arts. Having no former combat experience, they developed new styles, mostly jujitsu types, which “lacked any sort of martial experience”. Carr reports that in early times there were at least 179 different jujitsu schools, which dealt with empty hand and small weapons techniques. In Edo times, schools started to specialize in “non-combat tested, empty hand techniques”, each school stressed one or two major methods, and emphasized the aesthetics of the movements, “beauty of motion as achieved by minimum use of strength became more and more prized.”. 12. A native religious of Japan, involves the worship of spirits.. 46.