CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.9 Organization of the Study
Chapter 1 of the study has presented the introduction, the background of the problem, the purpose of the study, the questions to be answered, the significance of the study, the assumptions, delimitations, and the definitions of terms.
Chapter 2 is a review of the relevant literature. It addresses the following topics:
(1) the importance of children’s perspectives, (2) young children’s conceptions of learning, (3) young children’s conceptions of learning science, (4) early science
education in Taiwan, and (5) the draw-and-tell technique.
Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in the study, including the research design, population and sampling procedure. Each of these sections concludes with a rationale, including the strengths and limitations of the design elements. The chapter goes on to describe the procedures for data collection and the plan for data analysis.
Chapter 4 presents the results of the study. Chapter 5 discusses and analyzes the results, culminating in conclusions and recommendations.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This study attempts to adopt drawing as a method of probing Taiwanese young children’s conceptions of learning science. In this chapter, the relevant literature
regarding this study is reviewed and discussed. There are five major parts involved in
this study. In the first section of this chapter, the relevant literature regarding young children’s perspectives is reviewed. Then, previous research about young children’s
conceptions of learning is reviewed in the second section. The third section introduces young children’s specific domain conceptions of learning (e.g., science). The fourth section introduces early science education in Taiwan. Finally, relevant literature about the draw-and-tell method is introduced.
2.1 The Importance of Children’s Perspectives
In the past, adults, including teachers and researchers, neglected children’s culture, and overlooked children’s speech, underestimating their keen observer
abilities (e.g., insight and comprehensive ability), and disregarding their ability to
provide knowledge to adults (Lincoln, 1995; Oldfather, 1995b). Therefore, previous research on young children has mainly depended on researchers’ observations and the
testing of young children. As such, young children seldom showed their own feelings,
and their opinions were not elicited. The main reason for excluding young children from the research is that it was hypothesized that they were young and lacked the ability to express themselves (Morrow & Richards, 1996). However, after realizing the importance of understanding young children’s perspectives and of listening, the previous conceptions and research approaches have been criticized and replaced
(Barker & Weller, 2003).
In the last two decades, listening to children’s voices to gain understanding of
their learning, lives, and experiences in early childhood programs has gained great importance (Harcourt & Einarsdottir, 2012). This research tendency arises from a constructivist approach (Greig & Taylor 1999: 37):
[C]onstructivist researchers perceive the child as a subjective, contextual, self-determining and dynamic being.
Moreover, the official documents which view children as strong, knowledgeable, and contributing members of society are the United Nations Convention on the General Comment No.7 (United Nations, 1989) and General Comment No. 7 (United Nations, 2005). The latter specifically points out the right of young children to participate in decision making that affects their lives, and to be empowered to communicate their own views. Accordingly, the amount of research on
children’s knowledge, perspectives, views and opinions from the children themselves
has increased sharply (Harcourt et al., 2012).
Parents are the main decision makers of whether children go to school, their school patterns and learning content; however, children are the subject. A dramatic
proliferation of educational research has been conducted using the phenomenological approach to inquire into learners’ perceptions of learning (Tsai, 2004; Tsai & Kuo,
2008; Lin et al., 2012). This research has revealed that the insiders’ perspectives which come from the learner differ from the outsiders’ perspectives (Oldfathers,
1995b). Young children’s experiences and perceptions cannot be understood based on outsiders’ deductions and assumptions, but must include the voice of the person
involved to make the insider perspective more vivid and complete (Lloyd & Tarr, 2000).
Furthermore, from the curriculum development perspective, Goodlad (1979) stated that the learners’ expectations, perceptions and feelings are important.
Therefore, he analyzed curricula, determining that there are five different forms of curriculum planning. Among them, the experiential curriculum is what the learners actually experience. A divergence between the curriculum which the teacher conducts and what the children actually experience may exist. For this reason, understanding children’s conceptions will help teachers review their instructional activities.
Unfortunately, it is uncommon for children’s knowledge and understanding of their own learning to be used to reform teaching and learning (Smith, Duncan, & Marshall, 2005).
The early childhood researcher, Katz (1994), mentioned that in addition to the
role of governments, parents, staff members, and communities’ perspectives, young children’s perspectives should be adopted in quality early childhood program
evaluation, as that is how the program is actually experienced by the participating children.
From the point of view of childhood research, some researchers critique that most studies probe young children’s growth and development from the developmental
psychology perspective, or inquire into how their behavior is shaped in the social
context from the sociology perspective. In this research orientation, children are regarded as “becoming,” that is they are in the process of becoming adults and the outcome of socialization, rather than “being” which can express their own opinion
and allow them to participate actively. James, Jenks and Prout (cited in Freeman &
Mathison, 2009) proposed a new child-centered research orientation. Their views include: (a) childhood is a unique and important period in the human experience; its value is based on its own unique characteristics, and not on the degree of similarity to the adult world; (b) young children should be regarded as complete individuals with
their own ideas rather than as immature adults; (c) young children are autonomous
subjects, rather than just part of the family or property; parents and family members’
benefits and perceptions should not be considered to equal young children’s
perspectives; and (d) young children have the right, free from harm, to express their
views and to make decisions regarding the things that affect their lives.
Besides, according to the script theory, young children’s event knowledge is
organized around the structure of routine and daily activities (Hudson &Nelson, 1983). Scripts, also known as event schemata, are memory structures that are well-known in the field of cognitive psychology. As adults, young children remember familiar daily experiences in terms of event schema, the basic unit of scripts, which organize data based on past experiences with objects, scenes or events (Mandler, 1983). Experiences coded in script form provide children with organizing devices for interpreting everyday events, like going to nursery school or eating lunch. For young
children, scripts begin as very general structures, but with increasing age, they become more elaborate and complex. For example, when children are asked, “What happens at school?” they respond with statements about playing, working, helping,
making things, having lunch, taking a nap and going home (Fivush, 1984; Wiltz &
Klein, 2001). Script theory, then, is regarded as a developmental link in the
progression from early episodic memory to a mature, semantically organized,
long-term memory store (Hudson et al., 1983), and provides a theoretical structure for the study of preschoolers’ memory competencies in the context of activities that are
meaningful to them. It does not, however, describe motivational aspects of
experiences that might cause children to form judgments about events. Nor does it lend insight into how children’s scripts influence events or how students learn to
become acclimatized to the rules, values, and dispositions necessary to function within institutional settings, such as child care centers.
Taylor (2000) also pointed out that with the announcement of the United Nations
Convention on the General Comment No.7 in 1989, several studies have made efforts, using appropriate research methods, to probe young children’s perspectives and
involve their perspectives and points of view in different subject matter research (Christensen, 2004; Clark, 2005; Cook-Sather, 2002).
Wiltz et al. (2001) used classroom observations, field notes, analytical descriptions and interviews to explore 122 children’s likes and dislikes in 4 high
quality and 4 low quality classrooms. The result of the study shows that a deeper understanding of the world of childcare emerged to provide an insider’s perspective
on the quality differences that affect young children.
Wing (1995) used a qualitative method of participant observation and in-depth interviewing to investigate kindergarten and first and second grade children’s
perceptions of classroom activities. The results indicated that young children are very clear about what is play and what is work.
Moreover, Dockett and Perry (2005) explored children’s experiences and
expectations of school through their drawings and accompanying written narratives.
Using categories established through the Starting School Research Project, children’s
drawings and written narratives indicate a focus on how they feel about school, what happens at school, adjusting to school, and the physical context of school. In their study, drawing is discussed as a means of engaging children in research, using approaches that are of interest to children and in which they have a high element of control. The power of drawings and narrative is recognized, and the importance of
focusing on the meaning ascribed by children is emphasized.
In Taiwan, Hsieh (2012) probed children’s perspectives on learning English in a
partial English immersion and a single-period English class. Although these two types of programs differed in terms of the English instruction and duration, the children shared more similarities than differences regarding their perspectives on learning English.
The aforementioned studies certainly affirm that young children have a clear understanding of their learning, and are able to provide effective and accurate
information for the understanding of the school's curriculum, teachers’ teaching and children's learning, which provide academic and practical contributions (Duck, 1977).
2.2 Young Children’s Conceptions of Learning
A conception of learning is a coherent system of knowledge and beliefs about learning and related phenomena (Vermunt & Vermetten, 2004). Säljö (1979), the pioneer of research regarding conceptions of learning, carried out an interview study
in which he asked 90 people aged between 15 and 73 at institutions to identify how they understood the term “learning.” From their responses, he deduced the following
categories: “an increase of knowledge,” “memorizing,” “the acquisition of facts, procedures that can be retained and/or utilized in practice,” “the abstraction of
meaning,” and “an interpretative process aimed at the understanding of reality” as five
major types of conceptions of learning. Moreover, he led flourishing research on conceptions of learning (Marton et al., 1993; Marshall et al., 1999; Tsai, 2004).
Van Rossum and Schenk (1984) carried out a study with 69 psychology students at a university in the Netherlands. They asked the students to read a short text and then interviewed them about how they had approached the task of reading the text and how they approached their studies in general. Van Rossum and Schenk were able to classify the students into Säljö’s five conceptions of learning. Most of the students
who showed Conceptions 1–3 had used a surface approach to read the text, while most who showed Conceptions 4 and 5 had used a deep approach. Thus, the approaches to studying that students adopt in particular learning tasks are linked to their conceptions of learning. This provides another reason why educational interventions may be of limited effectiveness: students who hold a reproductive conception of learning through exposure to a subject-based curriculum may simply find it hard to adapt to a more student-centered curriculum (e.g., Newman, 2005).
Van Rossum and Taylor (1987) interviewed 91 arts students at a university in the Netherlands. They confirmed the existence of Säljö’s five conceptions of learning, but they found a sixth conception that they characterized as “a conscious process, fuelled
by personal interests and directed at obtaining harmony and happiness or changing society.” Van Rossum and Taylor found that men and women were equally likely to
hold these various conceptions of learning, but that older students were more likely
than younger students to hold the more sophisticated conceptions (Conceptions 4–6).
Gibbs, Morgan, and Taylor (1982) also confirmed the existence of Säljö’s five
conceptions of learning in 29 students who were taking courses through the distance education with the Open University in the United Kingdom. Marton, et al. (1993) then followed 10 of these students through their studies with the Open University over a period of six years. In their later years of studying, some showed the sixth conception
of learning found by van Rossum and Taylor, which Marton et al. (1993) called
“Changing as a person.” Marton et al. (1993) argued that the six conceptions
constituted a hierarchy through which students proceed during the course of their studies in higher education.
In terms of subsequent research, Tsai (2004) specifically considered the instructional characteristics in Taiwan and the conceptions of learning particularly
directed to the domain of science. He defined seven conceptions of learning, namely
“memorizing,” “preparing for tests,” “calculating and practicing tutorial problems,”
“increase of knowledge,” “applying,” “understanding,” and “seeing in a new way.”
He also suggested that these conceptions could be viewed as a hierarchical structure, from lower to higher levels. That is, the first three conceptions can be treated as lower level conceptions, whereas the latter four can be regarded as higher level.
Table 2.1 Conceptions of learning proposed by educators
Understanding Making sense of physical concepts and procedures
Applying
Memorizing Applying Applying equations and
Memorizing Memorizing Calculating and practicing (Cited from Lee, Johanson, & Tsai, 2008, p. 193)
Moreover, Tsai (2004) conducted a phenomenographic analysis to explore Taiwanese high school students’ conceptions of learning science, and induced some
characteristics of conceptions of learning. First, conceptions of learning are associated
conceptions of learning are influenced by culture. Third, conceptions of learning are related to educational contexts. Fourth, conceptions of learning, to some extent, are domain dependent. Finally, many studies in the line of research have focused on college students, with only a few exceptions which have studied high school students.
While there is substantial literature related to conceptions of learning (Säljö,
1979; Marton et al.,1993), there has been very little research investigating young children’s learning. Conceptions of learning are important because there is a
substantial body of research which shows that the conceptions held by learners can influence their approaches to learning, which in turn, affect the quality of their learning outcomes (Lee et al., 2008). Therefore, exploring children’s conceptions of
learning has become a crucial issue for educational researchers.
A pioneer study of young children’s learning was carried out by Pramling. She
conducted two observational studies and a series of six interview studies, carried out in the form of individual interviews to investigate the ways in which 3- to 8-year-old Swedish preschool students perceived learning. She identified three main conceptions of learning: (a) Learning as doing: the lowest level conception of learning is described as the process whereby children believe they can learn by doing something; (b)
Learning as knowing: the second level conception of learning is described as the process whereby children believe they have learned when they have come to know
something (e.g., facts, rules); (c) Learning as understanding: the highest level
conception of learning is described as the process whereby children believe they have learned when they have come to understand the meaning inherent in an activity or piece of information (Pramling, 1988).
Pramling's latter two conceptions of learning as knowing and learning as understanding are essentially a basic variation of the lower level conceptions of learning previously discussed in the sections describing adults' and secondary school students' conceptions of learning. It is interesting to note, however, that the
conception of learning as doing is not evident in these studies with older students.
This may be a result of the different focus placed on learning in preschools, or it may be a result of developmental progression as students increase in age and learning experience.
Doverborg (1987) showed how preschool children perceived what mathematics was all about. They considered it either as an activity that prepared them for school or as a function of dealing with problems here and now. Some children regarded
counting as a school activity as, for them, such an activity existed only in the
preschool curriculum. On the other hand, one child expressed that “It is important to
be able to count so that my brother won’t cheat me on sweets.” That means he/she had a functional conception of counting and could talk about many situations in which it is
important to be able to count, situations which have meaning for the child (cited from Pramling, 1988).
Van Rossum et al. (1984) discovery of a relationship between individuals' conceptions of learning and how they approach learning tasks highlights the
importance of identifying conceptions of learning. Their findings have suggested that an individual's conception of learning will influence his or her approach to various learning tasks, which in turn will affect the quality of the learning outcome. For example, a low-level conception of learning will lead to a surface approach to
learning (e.g., rote rehearsal), whereas a higher level conception of learning will lead to a deep approach to learning (e.g., elaboration). To complete this relationship, they assert that surface approaches lead to less effective learning outcomes compared to
deep approaches which lead to high-level, quality learning outcomes.
In Taiwan, Wang and Tsai (2012) investigated elementary school students’
conceptions of learning in Taiwan by using the drawing technique. They concluded five categories: (1) learning location, (2) major learning activity, (3) symbols of knowledge, (4) symbols of study, and (5) people involved. More details of the checklist for interpreting students’ drawings are shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 A checklist for interpreting student’s drawing
Categories Indicators and Descriptions
(1) Learning Location 1.1 Inside a classroom.
1.2 Outside a classroom: such as in the library, at a museum, outdoors or at a park.
(2) Major Learning Activity 2.1 Listening or Lecturing: students are listening to the teacher’s lectures.
2.2 Reading or writing: Students are reading a book or doing their
homework.
2.3 Talking or Discussing: The students are discussing or having conversations with others.
2.4 Others: Students are doing
something without a formal academic purpose, e.g., running on the track, camping, playing with their
classmates.
2.5 Can’t tell: there are no learning activities presented or students are doing some activities that cannot be defined.
(3) Symbols of Study 3.1 Stationery: pencils, erasers, or notebooks.
3.2 Desk and chair.
3.3 Chalkboard.
3.4 Bookshelves.
3.5 Technology tool: such as a TV, computers or projectors.
(4) Symbols of Knowledge 4.1 Books
4.2 Learning content: information about school subjects, such as Chinese characters or mathematical formulas on the chalkboard.
(5) People Involved 5.1 Teachers
5.2 Students (Cited from Wang & Tsai, 2012, p. 615)
2.3 Young Children’s Conceptions of Learning Science
As previously mentioned, conceptions of learning are domain dependent.
Therefore, a growing body of studies provides a picture of how learners at different educational levels conceive of learning in different fields: how they account for what is learnt, the purpose and uses of learning, the kinds of actions and processes
involved, and the environmental and mental conditions supporting learning (Marton
& Säljö, 1976). These conceptions work as a sort of hinge between the person who learns and the culture of which she or he is a part. In other words, conceptions of learning present a personal or subjective dimension, and at the same time, are entrenched in particular folk psychologies and pedagogies shaped within given
historical times and cultural spaces (Olson & Bruner, 1996).
Children’s conceptions of how learning occurs begin in early childhood, which is related to what specific learning content they are immersed in. Pramling’s
phenomenographical studies (1996) have shown that in preschool years, children
progress from conceiving learning as doing, to conceiving it as knowing and, at a further level, as understanding. More recently, it has been proposed that children’s
progress from conceiving learning as doing, to conceiving it as knowing and, at a further level, as understanding. More recently, it has been proposed that children’s