CHINA-EU PARTNERSHIP
4.2 OSBTACLES TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHINA-EU PARTNERSHIP
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55 In conclusion, from the constructivist claims it is possible to derive that norms and rules, structures and actors, ideas and concepts, as well as social processes contribute to modify the economic and political arenas (Simon-Belli, 2002). Furthermore, actors see each-other according to their self-identities and the perceptions they have of the other, but these views are not fixed, they can modify according to the shared expectations actors have towards each-other. Therefore, it is arguable that deeper and continuous interaction will change the initial vision of "Self" distinguished from the "Other".
4.2 OSBTACLES TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHINA-EU PARTNERSHIP
As already analyzed in the literature review, the EU-China Strategic Comprehensive Partnership has not yet developed as fast and deeply as the two sides originally hoped. Many scholars focus on rational approaches, giving more importance to the material factors and interests of the two powers, underestimating the role of the non-material ones (Jørgensen &Wong, 2016).
From the literature review it is possible to infer that mainstream studies on the relationship between Brussels and Beijing focus mostly on normative or economic factors, explaining that European countries give priority to their national interest and often sacrifice ideals and values for economic benefits, or that the EU considers China as a less influential power. On the other hand, they point out that China does not respect the international regulations, or focuses on the bilateral relations with the member states. From the literature review it appears that the obstacles to the advancement of the partnership are material divergences of market rules or of political systems and laws, but also the lack of unity of the EU and the focus of the PRC on the single member states. However, these rational approaches overlook the self-perceptions and identities of the two actors, which this thesis considers to be the key reasons of the slow development of their relations.
According to constructivist theories, identity, and in particular the third kind described by Wendt, is relational, which means that it is formed through the interaction between actors, creating an image of the "Self" in opposition, or simply different, from the "Other", this is exactly what
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56 happened between the European and Chinese politicians, as well as between the two populations (Godehardt, 2016). What is fundamental to analyze in this research, in order to answer the first question and define the obstacles to a deeper partnership, are the most relevant identities that influence the China-EU relations.
As explained by Wang Yiwei in his book "Clash of Identities" published in 2010, Brussels and Beijing relations are characterized by four types of identity differences, or "clash of identities"
(Wang, 2010):
1. socialism versus capitalism: China representing the socialist power and the European Union being the capitalist block;
2. eastern civilization versus western civilization, this categorization contains also the distinction between the completely different cultures of their peoples;
3. biggest developing country versus the biggest developed bloc: China always defines itself as a developing country (Stone Fish, 2014), but the EU urges the PRC to take more international responsibilities;
4. emerging power versus post-modern model: the rise of China, considered to have the potential to transform the international system, is one of the most discussed phenomenon of the 21st Century; on the other hand, the European Union is already a step further past the traditional notion of state, or as it describes itself, it "is unlike anything else—it isn’t a government, an association of states, or an international organization"(Delegation of the European Union to the United States).
This "clash of identities", which is also based on different values, cultures and self-perceptions, diverse methods of conducting foreign policy and diplomatic relations, has lead to misunderstandings, and even stereotypes and discriminations, that have hindered a more profound partnership.
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57 4.2.1 EUROPEAN UNION'S VALUES AND IDENTITIES
In order to better understand its values it is necessary to know the EU's historical and cultural background. The European Union was initially created with the purpose of maintaining peace in a continent destroyed by the WWII, by creating solid economic and progressive political links between its states, in that way a potential war between member states would be simply unimaginable. This idea seemed to work, since Europe has enjoyed seventy years of peace it has never seen before. Therefore, the EU is based on multilateralism and sees itself as a "force of good in the world" (Smith, 2016:79). EU's values are well defined in the treaties on which it is founded and on the Copenhagen Criteria, which are the rules that define whether a country is eligible to become part of the Union:
1. "stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect for and protection of minorities;
2. a functioning market economy and the ability to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the EU;
3. the ability to take on and implement effectively the obligations of membership, including adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union" (European Commission, 2016d).
The EU attaches great importance to justice and democracy, on which its basic values are founded: peace, freedom, equality, rule of law, human rights, solidarity, mutual respect among people, protection of minorities, free and fare trade, eradication of poverty (Jørgensen & Wong, 2016; Wyzycka & Hasmath, 2016). As stated in the Treaty of Lisbon, the block has the objective and interest of advocating its fundamental values of justice and democracy within and outside Europe (Jørgensen & Wong, 2016).
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58 4.2.2 CHINA'S VALUES AND IDENTITIES
Similar to the European case, the Chinese historical background has a huge impact on the values and principles the PRC is founded on today. Historically based on the family, the Chinese society is still a collective society, where the Confucian idea of relationality, or Guanxi (關係), guides the social relations.
Chinese policy makers focus on harmonious world and peaceful development, as shown in the official statements. In the past, the Chinese society was based on the Tianxia system (天下), literally "all-under-heaven", which has three meanings:
1. "the earth or all lands under the sky;
2. a common choice made by all peoples in the world, or a universal agreement in the ‘hearts’ of all people;
3. a political system for the world with a global institution to ensure universal order" (Zhang, 2010).
The system adheres to the principle that nobody and nothing can be excluded, because "no one is essentially incompatible with others". Furthermore, this system "is fair and impartial to all peoples:
it is meant to be of all and for all, and never of and for anybody in particular". Moreover, its core idea is to "reconstitute the world along the lines of the family, thereby transforming the world into a home for all peoples" (Zhang, 2010). In other words, it is considered to be a "universal system inclusive of all nations, and a world of, and for all peoples" (Qin, 2012:71). From an international relations perspective, Tianxia is a "world system characterized by harmony and cooperation without hegemony" (Zhang, 2010; Qin, 2012).
Today Beijing is very busy protecting its core values and main interests, such as territorial unity and sovereignty, national stability and economic development. It has created unique socialist and development methods, different from the Western patterns of growth, and it aims at defending and promoting its "Socialism with Chinese characteristics". Moreover, the PRC values mostly the
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59 social and economic human rights. Finally, it advocates the "Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence":
1. "mutual respect for each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity";
2. "mutual non-aggression";
3. "non-interference in each other's internal affairs";
4. "equality and mutual benefit";
5. "peaceful co-existence" (Vision and Actions, 2015).
4.2.3 DIFFERENCES IN IDENTITY AND THEIR IMPACT
As described in the previous paragraphs, China and the EU are totally different actors with contrasting identities and characteristics and unique values and interests. These differences, together with the lack of a clear definition of common interests and of the meaning of "Comprehensive Strategic Partnership", as well as disunity at the European level, have lead to disagreements and tensions in both the political and economic fields. From the economic point of view, the partnership could not develop because of a series of thorny issues, such as: "market access and investment, intellectual property rights, government procurement, environmental and energy clauses, and of course market economy status (MES) in the WTO" (Smith, 2016:82). At the political level the reasons of disagreement are related to particularly sensitive issues, such as human rights and the definition of sovereignty. These topics are connected not only to identities and values, but also to the regime type of the two actors: the PRC is a socialist, corporatist, authoritarian regime; whereas the EU is a liberal democracy. Norms also play an important role: China attaches great importance to state sovereignty and to non-interference, it gives priority to social and economic rights and it refers to the principle of "common good", different from the Western idea of jus cogens; on the other hand the EU is exceptionally concerned about political rights and individual freedoms, which explain its fervor in advocating human rights wherever possible (Wyzycka & Hasmath 2016).
The differences in identities, values, cultures, interests, regimes and norms, or simply in the interpretation of the same concept, carry crucial implications. Over the years the two powers have
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60 had arguments over very sensitive topics, which are still ongoing, such as the Chinese behavior in Africa in relation to secure and sustainable development, the human rights situation in Tibet, the territorial claims over the South China Sea, the question of universality versus relativity of human rights, the methods of development. The last two points clearly show the impact of values and culture on the bilateral relations. China wants to pursue its own path to development, by maintaining domestic stability and through a gradual process of reforms and economic growth, not by means of democratization and human rights promotion, as suggested by Western countries (Pan, 2012).
The aforementioned differences have a negative impact not only on the political and economic relations, but also on the perceptions that the peoples have of each other. The Europeans, who are suspicious of China's real intentions, are experiencing feelings of mistrust and uncertainty (Islam, 2015; Islam & Kabir, 2015); whereas the Chinese have the feeling of being judged and not respected or treated on equal basis by the Europeans. Misperceptions and misunderstandings are caused by lack of communication and mutual awareness, especially due to insufficient or incorrect media coverage. Because of the censorship, ironically called the "Great Firewall of China", Chinese people cannot access European media and information, therefore they often do not have a correct understanding of the European culture and of the EU institutions. On the other hand, the negative media coverage in western countries, for example about the scarce quality of the "Made in China", pollution and issue of human rights, in what can be called "China Bashing", has worsened the image of the PRC in the "old continent" (interview n°5, April 2017).