SOLUTIONS TO THE OBSTACLES

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60 had arguments over very sensitive topics, which are still ongoing, such as the Chinese behavior in Africa in relation to secure and sustainable development, the human rights situation in Tibet, the territorial claims over the South China Sea, the question of universality versus relativity of human rights, the methods of development. The last two points clearly show the impact of values and culture on the bilateral relations. China wants to pursue its own path to development, by maintaining domestic stability and through a gradual process of reforms and economic growth, not by means of democratization and human rights promotion, as suggested by Western countries (Pan, 2012).

The aforementioned differences have a negative impact not only on the political and economic relations, but also on the perceptions that the peoples have of each other. The Europeans, who are suspicious of China's real intentions, are experiencing feelings of mistrust and uncertainty (Islam, 2015; Islam & Kabir, 2015); whereas the Chinese have the feeling of being judged and not respected or treated on equal basis by the Europeans. Misperceptions and misunderstandings are caused by lack of communication and mutual awareness, especially due to insufficient or incorrect media coverage. Because of the censorship, ironically called the "Great Firewall of China", Chinese people cannot access European media and information, therefore they often do not have a correct understanding of the European culture and of the EU institutions. On the other hand, the negative media coverage in western countries, for example about the scarce quality of the "Made in China", pollution and issue of human rights, in what can be called "China Bashing", has worsened the image of the PRC in the "old continent" (interview n°5, April 2017).

4.3 SOLUTIONS TO THE OBSTACLES

From the analysis of the constructivist theories, applied on the divergent characteristics of Beijing and Brussels, it is possible to draw the following conclusions and put forward some suggestions on how to surmount the obstacles to an effective partnership between the PRC and the EU. Being connected to identities and misunderstanding, disagreements existing between the two

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61 sides can be solved through better dialogue on the basis of mutual respect and increased reciprocal understanding.

The European and Chinese representatives should focus on the common interests, on the similarities they share and on the huge progresses they have already made, instead of being paralyzed by their controversies and fears. The two powers have common characteristics: they are both relatively new influential players in the international system, which have developed from old civilizations; they both unify different ethnic groups and populations. Moreover, they are not divided by any security issue that could threaten their bilateral relations. Furthermore, they are enjoying increasing people-to-people exchanges, that can potentially further improve the mutual understanding and overall relations. The two sides are cooperating on numerous fields, have decided to collaborate in some aspects of One Belt One Road through the Connectivity Platform, and have released a common statement on climate change, as symbol of willingness to work side by side (Friends of Europe, 2015; Smith, 2016).

In conclusion, when analyzing EU-China relations, it is surely necessary to take into consideration the political and economic circumstance, or material factors, but it is key to bear in mind that the non-material aspects play a fundamental role in determining the outcome of the interstate relationships. As explained by constructivist scholars, identities are relational and can change; therefore, the way China and the EU see each other can change and improve, thanks to more frequent collaborations and exchange, as well as closer cultural relations. This thesis is aimed at demonstrating that socio-cultural factors are relevant in the constitution of international politics and diplomacy, and that Brussels and Beijing should improve their cultural and people-to-people exchange, to obtain a better understanding of each other's values and identities, with the consequence of creating mutual trust and a durable partnership (Melissen, 2013; Mocker, 2013;

Islam & Kabir, 2015; Song & Bian, 2015; Arduino, 2016; Jørgensen & Wong, 2016). The Belt and Road initiative will potentially boost exchanges by creating an innovative and multifaceted framework for the two powers for cooperation in cultural and social initiatives. The next chapters

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62 will explain in further details the EU-China cultural relations, their impact on the general relationship, and the role played by BRI in improving the comprehensive partnership.

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63 5. EU-CHINA CULTURAL AND PEOPLE-TO-PEOPLE RELATIONS

As learnt in the previous chapter, identities have a huge impact on the interests and preferences of states, and consequently on their foreign politics. Being part of identity, culture also plays a fundamental role in the international relations, indeed "cultural mores hold normative power and enhance a country’s standing on the international stage" (Zhang L., 2014b). For this reason, when researching about the EU and China it is fundamental to give emphasis to their cultural relations, an aspect that is often overlooked but which hinders huge potential in shaping their overall relations.

This chapter is focused on the China-EU cultural and people-to-people relations, as clearly expressed in the title. Since this research is founded on culture and identities, it is considered necessary to first give a definition of these terms: the latter was already addressed by the previous chapter about constructivism; whereas the former is discussed thoroughly in the first paragraph of this chapter. The second section is aimed at introducing the concept of cultural diplomacy and soft power, which are considered of fundamental importance by the PRC to improve its image in the world, whereas the following paragraph addresses the cultural diplomacy strategies that China and the European Union have implemented in the last few years. The section 5.2.2 provides an overview of both the cultural relations and people-to-people exchanges, in terms of initiatives, projects and events, between EU and China over the last few years, focusing especially on the period from 2013 when the Belt and the Road initiative was launched. The aforementioned projects and events can all be considered, to some extent, to be part of the cultural diplomacy that each country, or union of countries, is individually carrying out to promote itself. From this perspective, OBOR is a huge framework, a box that contains everything, from economic and trade projects, to policy connections, from infrastructures to cultural cooperation. This chapter concludes with the final remarks.

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64 5.1 CULTURE

The Cambridge dictionary defines "culture" as the "way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs of a particular group of people at a particular time", but also as "music, art, theatre, literature, etc." (Cambridge Dictionary). Similarly, the Oxford dictionary defines it as "the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively" and as "the idea, customs, and social behaviour of a particular people or society"(Oxford Dictionary). Both dictionaries contain also the definition for the other meaning of the term: "cells, tissues, organs, or organisms grown for scientific purposes, or the activity of breeding and keeping particular living things in order to get the substances they produce" (Cambridge Dictionary), which is the original root of the word. For the purposes of this thesis the author will take into consideration only the first type of meaning.

Actually there can be many different definitions and understandings for the word "culture", this is the reason why it is important to clarify which meaning is taken into consideration in a thesis based on cultural differences. Indeed "culture is more than the sum of its definitions"(Rothman, 2014), it can be the individual process of enrichment (for instance when a person is "cultured"), it can be the peculiar way of life of a group (for example the European or Chinese cultures), and it can be an activity (such as those organized by a museums or Ministries) (Rothman, 2014). In other words, "culture" is each of these three aspects and the three all together in their overlapping connotations.

There exists also another categorization of "culture", as many students majoring in language and culture normally have to learn, there is the culture with "capital C" or "big C", distinguished from the culture with "small c". The first type is what in the past was considered as being more elevated and valuable, such as art, literature, music, architecture, etc.; nowadays it includes also other kind of "visible" culture, such as food, popular culture, festivities (Bilash, 2009). The latter is what was historically called "civilization", and it encompasses abstract aspects such as verbal and non-verbal language, practices (bowing versus shaking hands) and norms, myths and legends,

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65 beliefs and religions, values (Bilash, 2009; Rothman, 2014). In this thesis both notions will be treated on equal basis and both included when talking about culture, without any kind of

"discrimination" or preference, since it is believed that the "small c culture" is also highly valuable.