Piao (2011)

have the semantic features of recurrence and duration and thus belong to atypical frequency adverbs. From the perspective of semantic functions and syntactic positions, frequency adverbs can be classified into typical and atypical, but whether the distinction between typical and atypical frequency adverbs exerts influence on children’s acquisition has remained unknown.

To conclude, Zou (2006) identifies three semantic features of frequency adverbs:

diffuseness, indefiniteness and quantifiableness. He also provides the subtypes of frequency adverbs, as presented in Figure 2-2. Among these subtypes, only Types A2-2 and B2 are identified as typical frequency adverbs; the others are atypical frequency adverbs. Furthermore, Zou (2006) does not discuss the distinction between events that can and cannot be modified by frequency adverbs. The present study will include this issue and explore whether children recognize the distinction.

2.1.3 Piao (2011)

Frequency adverbs can be used to indicate the recurrence of an action or an event or the continuity of a state. There are a series of frequency adverbs, and the difference between neighboring frequency adverbs is blurred. However, when they are classified into different levels, the boundaries become clearer. Piao (2011) classifies Chinese frequency adverbs into three levels: the highest level includes zong(shi) ‘always,’

lao(shi) ‘always’ and so on; the higher level chang ‘often,’ jingchang ‘often,’

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changchang ‘usually,’ and so on; the lower level youshi ‘sometimes,’ ouer ‘occasionally’

and so on.

Frequency adverbs are examined by Piao (2011) in terms of their semantic features and morphology, and he identifies five semantic features of frequency adverbs. First of all, quantifiableness means that frequency adverbs can be measured by their quantity.

From the perspective of quantity, frequency adverbs of the highest level are permanent;

those of the lower level imply few times of recurrence. Second, diffuseness indicates that the action modified by a frequency adverb is diffused and that action happens repeatedly within a period of time. Third, vagueness demonstrates that the actual times of an event modified by a frequency adverb is not precisely specified. Fourth, continuity exhibits that frequency adverbs actually imply a state of continuing for a period of time within intervals. Fifth, irregularity presents that when an action happens is unsure and the interval between the recurrences of an action is unclear.

Regarding morphology, some frequency adverbs are formed by two identical phonological syllables, such as lulu ‘repeatedly,’ pinpin ‘incessantly’ and changchang

‘usually.’ According to Piao (2011), frequency adverbs with reduplication display greater intensity than their monosyllabic counterparts. For instance, changchang

‘usually’ implies more frequent than chang ‘often.’ However, we find that the reduplication may not definitely indicate greater intensity of frequency. The difference

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of the two may also lie in their distributions—disyllabic frequency adverbs are mainly used in spoken form and their monosyllabic counterparts are used in written form. In other words, their meanings are identical and speakers decide the suitable wording according to the forms or occasions.

Piao (2011) further argues that frequency adverbs mainly stay in positions either before subjects or between subjects and predicates. The latter is typical. Sentences with frequency adverbs before subjects are marked and can be restored to the position between subjects and predicates. The function of this type of sentences is to highlight the importance of frequency and to link the previous context.

(7) a. Wanshang yi pian qihei.

night one CL dark

Ouer renjia chuanghu touchu yi dian dengguang, ….

occasionally family window penetrate one CL light

‘It is very dark at night. Some lights are occasionally penetrated through the

windows of the family.’ (Piao 2011:139)

b. Renjia chuanghu ouer touchu yi dian dengguang, ….

family window occasionally penetrate one CL light

‘Some lights are occasionally penetrated through the windows of the family.’

As demonstrated in (7a), the frequency adverb ouer ‘occasionally’ emphasizes the importance of frequency and links the two sentences, and it can be restored to the position between the subject and the predicate like (7b). In other words, placing a frequency adverb in either position in Mandarin does not affect the grammaticality or

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acceptability of the sentence. Therefore, it is not necessary to examine whether the two positions will influence children’s interpretation of frequency adverbs. Because the latter position is more typical than the former one, all frequency adverbs will be placed between subjects and predicates in the present study.

With regard to the selection of frequency adverbs, frequency adverbs require that the events they modify should be able to recur. Thus, events that are unlikely to happen many times cannot be modified by frequency adverbs, as shown in (8).

(8) ?Ta qunian changchang daxue biye.

he last year usually college graduate

‘?He usually graduated from college last year.’ (Piao 2011:139)

However, frequency adverbs can modify this kind of events when the subject or object is a collective noun because it indicates a collection or a number of people or things. In this case, the recurrence does not limit to an individual. Rather, the recurrence indicates that the action happens to many individuals belonging to this group.

In sum, Piao (2011) classifies frequency adverbs into three levels and examines frequency adverbs from the perspective of semantics and syntax. As discussed above, frequency adverbs should be classified into more levels or categories according to the frequencies frequency adverbs denote. Regarding semantics, in addition to quantifiableness, diffuseness and vagueness, also called indefiniteness, which have

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been identified by Zou (2006), Piao (2011) adds two more semantic features—

continuity and irregularity. With respect to syntax, the typical position of frequency adverbs is between a subject and a predicate. Besides, events that frequency adverbs can modify are restricted. Whether children detect the restriction of frequency adverbs modifying events deserves to be explored.