Capital is accumulated and profitable force that transforms for reproduction and enables individuals to obtain social energy (Bourdieu 1986). Thus, patterns of capital
4.1 A PPRAISAL OF E NGLISH
The appraisal of English can be approached from both explicit affirmations on the necessity of English and positive evaluations of English users. As far as both English users and non-English users are concerned, English is indispensable for its role as a medium in globalization and as an instrument for social upward mobility.
English is a language operating at a global scale yet with symbolic values at local levels. It positions English users in a more privileged social status in comparison with non-English users.
4.1.1 English as a necessity
Viewing English as essential is the forefront ideology held by nearly all the informants. English has been popularly treated as something biyao ‘must’ or bixu
‘essential’. The finding corresponds to the know studies (e.g. Chen 2010; Lee 2008, Tsai 2010; Wang 2000), indicating that the importance of English has been overemphasized for long and that it has been internalized as a uncontestable social norm.
A middle-aged restaurant owner, Shane, who displayed limited English skills, believed that younger generations in Taiwan must acquire English owing to the fact that we are in a global village, as presented in (2).
(2)
1 ANN 那你覺得啦 (10:28)
‘What do you reckon?’
2 嗯
‘Hmm’
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3 覺得 (.) 臺灣人有需要具備流利的英文的必要嗎
‘Is there a need for Taiwanese to have a good command of English?’
4 SHANE 我們是比較 (.) 我們是屬於那一種 (.) 我們是屬於傳統
‘We are relatively old-fashioned.’
5 或是那個 (.) 比較沒有世界 (.) 不會走向世界的
‘Or you can say that we are fairly local.’
6 ANN 喔
‘Hmm.’
7 SHANE 所以 (.) 我是覺得 (.) 這 (.) 沒有必要
‘So I don’t think it is necessary (for me to learn English).’
8 年紀也大了
‘And I am no longer young.’
9 ANN 嗯
‘Hmm.’
10 SHANE 可是那個 (.) 就是 (.) 因為現在是 (.) 地球村
‘But, erm, because we are in a global village now.’
11 ANN 嗯嗯
‘Hmm.’
12 SHANE 對 (.) 地球村
‘Yeah, the global village’
13 所以我覺得就是年輕人應該還是要
‘I think young people still ought to be able to (speak English)’ English because yinwei xianzai shi diqiucun ‘We are in a global village now’ (line 10).
It can be observed that the repeated term diqiucun ‘global village’ in lines 10 and 12 seems to strengthen his stance on the necessity of English. Originally, he described
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that younger generations yinggai ‘ought to’ be able to speak English in line 13, but then accentuated the necessity for younger generations to acquire English by replacing the epistemic model yinggai ‘ought to’ with the deontic model bixu ‘must’
in line 15. The alternation from an epistemic modal yinggai ‘ought to’ to a deontic one
bixu ‘must’ suggests that English is perceived to be an obligation and responsibility.
Together with the repeated diqiucun, it is generalized that language ideology of English as a necessity is strongly associated with globalization for non-English users.
Violet, an accountant in her late forties, also connected English to its global status. As shown in (3), Violet believed that English is a tool which is mutually shared globally. Accordingly, acquiring English is a must.
(3)
1 ANN 那你覺得臺灣人有 (.) 那種 (.) 具備英文能力的必要嗎
(10:40)
‘Do you think that it is necessary for Taiwanese to be equipped with English competence?’ English necessitation. Different from non-English users, English users are somehow
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reluctant to connect English and globalization in a linear, direct, and causal correspondence. Rather, the notion that English is a neutral tool prevails among English users.
An English major, Jodi, in her mid-twenties, suggested that our high reliance on international trade and academic developments make English indispensable, as presented in (4).
(4) 1 你覺得臺灣人有具備流利英文能力的必要嗎 (18:36)
‘Do you think it’s necessary for Taiwanese to acquire English?’
2 JODI 我覺得因為台灣是島
‘I think, we are on an island.’
3 我覺得台灣的貿易很 (.) 很興盛
‘I think the (international) commerce is prosperous here.’
4 ANN 嗯
‘Humm’
5 JODI 比較沒有辦法內需嘛
‘We are not self-sufficient in terms of domestic resources.’
6 ANN 嗯
‘Humm’
7 JODI 一定要靠外需
‘We must rely on foreign resources.’
8 所以 (.) 我覺得那個 (.) 整個國際貿易什麼的都很重要
‘So I think that the international trade is very important.’
9 ANN 嗯
‘We are not able to invest much financial funding in academic development,’
13 沒有國外來的雄厚
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‘different from other countries which support the academic developments with enormous financial investments.’
14 所以我覺得滿多資訊是要靠外界的
‘So we heavily rely on foreign information.’
15 ANN 嗯
‘Hmm.’
16 JODI 那靠外界的話
‘And with such a high dependence on external resources,’
→ 17 如果要等人家翻成中文
‘if we can access to information only after it is translated,’
18 我覺得太慢了
‘I think it is way too late.’
19 ANN 嗯
‘Hmm.’
20 JODI 所以我覺得英文其實滿必要的
‘So I think that English is fairly essential.’
Jodi asserted that English is necessary due to our high reliance on international commerce and sciences (lines 7 and 14), for English is the foremost medium via which the international trade is conducted and information is transmitted. She further stated that English allows its users to access to updated information and that it would be too late if information has to be translated (line 10). Competence in English is thought to enable Taiwanese to approach foreign information.
Similar viewpoints are found among English users. In (5) below, Zoe, an English user in her early thirties, suggested that English may be a tool which helps to foster broader perspectives.
(5)
1 ANN 那你覺得臺灣人啊 (.) 有具備流利英文的必要嗎 (21:08)
‘Do you think it’s necessary for us to speak good English?’
2 ZOE 我覺得有耶
‘I think it is.’
3 ANN 為[什麼]
‘Why’
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‘pay much attention to international current events’
9 ANN 嗯
‘English may not have much to do with it’
13 但是我會覺得說
‘But I think,’
14 我們一直都沒有看到國際現在發展的情況
‘We never pay much attention to the global issues and trends.’
15 我們可能比韓國還是什麼
‘Compared with South Korea,’
16 我們一直在說我們是四小龍
‘We always emphasize that we are one of the four Asian dragons’
17 可是 (.) 我們現在真的比別人落後很多
‘But compared with others, we actually fall far far behind.’
18 ANN 對啊
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22 其實我們沒有那麼弱什麼之類的
‘that we are not in such bad conditions.’
23 但是 (.) 其實我們是真的是一直停滯不前
‘But the truth is we indeed came to a halt.’
24 對 (.) 會覺得有這種 (.) 這種擔憂
‘Yeah. I do have this kind of worries.’
25 因為你如果知道
‘Because if you know’
→ 26 你如果可能懂英文的話
‘If you know some English,’
27 你可能就會去關心現在時事發生的情況嘛
‘Chances are you are more concerned about the current news.’
28 ANN 嗯
‘Hmm.’
29 對啊 (.) 那可能就比較不會侷限在我們臺灣現在- 只有現
在臺灣發生的事情
‘Right. And we and our visions are less likely to be confined to Taiwan.’
Zoe stated in line 8 that Taiwanese people bu tai zhongshi nazhong guojixing de
shijian ‘pay little attention to international current event’. She was cautious about the
fact that the lack of awareness of international trends may lead to our nearsightedness (line 10). Therefore, countries which were are once comparable with in terms of economic boost keep progressing whereas we fall far behind and even came to a halt (line 23). Zoe suggested that competence in English may arouse our awareness and further cultivate our international perspectives and competitiveness.Based on Jodi and Zoe’s reasons for English necessitation as presented in (4) and (5) respectively, they focused on the mediating role which English plays in globalization. Zoe even explicitly claimed that keneng gen yingwen meiyou guanxi
‘English may not have much to do with (international competitiveness and perspectives)’. Both of the English users did not mention diqiucun ‘global village’ and
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quanqiuhua ‘globalization’. Instead, they described the functions of English as neutral.
It may be attributable to the fact that English users are consciously toning down the positive images and instrumental values of English for English users are usually taken as beneficiary in this new forms of consumer economy. It will be discussed in detail in later sections that English user will downplay both themselves and their competence in English so as to not stand out like a sore thumb. This may be a tangible account for English users’ emphasis on the neutral functions and their reluctance to directly associate English to globalization.
Comparing the two perspectives from English users and non-English users, it is found that both parties verbalized explicitly their affirmation on the necessity of English acquisition. Nonetheless, what such a conceptualization is based on in English users and non-English users’ perspectives is very different. As mentioned in previous sections, English is regarded as mostly instrumental in Taiwan with its exchange-value outshining its use-value (e.g. Chen 2010; Lee 2008; Tsai 2010, Wang 2000), despite the fact that the two types of values are in fact interwoven and overlapping. The study also finds that the functions that English serves are not an either-or dichotomy. Both exchange values and use values contribute to the prevalence of English in the society. It can be suggested that English, though considered predominantly instrumental, is both communicative and instrumental.
Though domains in which English is spoken are still restricted and non-English users still represent the majority in Taiwan, the number of English speakers is steadily growing with a significant age effect (Chen 2010). Through the exposure to the language, its functions are also transforming. It will be discussed in later sections that the distribution and use of English is no longer as exclusive as it was.
Different from the absence of terms like globalization and global village in English users’ affirmation of the necessity of English, the term appears to be the
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reasons why English is essential for non-English users. In (2), Shane associated the rise of English with the global village (line 10). Similar viewpoints are also found in Violet’s reflection in (3). In fact, most of the non-English users interviewed either internalized the enforcement of English uncritically without providing reasons or directly connected English to globalization. To my regret, not until I was half way through the data collection did I notice the tendency. However, even with the limited information, it is found that none of English users connected English directly to globalization. English users were less willing to claim a direct and causal relation between the necessitation of English and globalization. The discrepancies in reasons for English necessitation may also be attributable to how English determines the roles of English users and non-English users in globalized contexts. As most of the activities at the global scale are conducted in English, English automatically filters out non-English users and deters them from participating in these global activities.
Therefore, English users and non-English users have different extend of involvement in globalization.
Upon responding to questions regarding advantages which competence in English can bring, most informants connect a good command of English to better job offers in labor markets. English itself is viewed as a resource and an interest.
Instrumental motivations, which refer to English learning aimed at achieving upward social mobility (Gardner & Lambert 1972), are probably the most immediate and practical rewards from which individuals can benefit. In other words, English is perceived to have exchange-values (Block 2010), values that English can be used to exchange for other items such as better job opportunities and promotion. It is also found that both English users and non-English users are precisely aware of the instrumental functions of English.
In (6) below, a middle-aged accountant, Violet, who works in a foreign-invested
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company, believed that her incompetence in English positions her in a less privileged situation in workplace because she could not converse with foreign clients.
(6)
1 ANN 那本身有沒有覺得 (.) 就是
‘As far as you are concerned,’
2 英文能力沒有那麼好 (.) 覺得有什麼壞處
‘What are some of the disadvantages of relatively lower proficiency in English?’
→ 3 VIOLET 有 (.) 在職場上會吃虧 (03:54)
‘Incompetence in English put me at a disadvantage in workplace.’
((omitted))
4 就像說 (.) 有時候臨時接到客戶的電話
‘Like, when you answer calls from foreign clients occasionally,’
‘And you can only tell them (to wait a moment).’
8 沒有辦法去 (.) 交代
‘You are not prepared to converse with them.’
9 對 (.) 沒有辦法交代說
‘Right. You can’t actually tell people at the other end of the phone’
10 如果說 (.) 對方講說 (.) 他去哪裡
‘if they ask where the people (they want to contact) are.’
11 我們沒辦法去跟他說 (.) 這樣子
‘We cannot tell them.’
((omitted))
12 在這個時候 (.) 英文真的很重要
‘In situations like this, English is ultimately important.’
As can be seen in (6), Violet suggested in line 3 that incompetence makes her
zai zhichang shang hui chikui ‘at a disadvantage in workplace.’ As an accountant in a
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foreign-interested company, she was aware of her incompetence (lines 10 and 11). In fact, rarely does she need to interact with clients. Besides, she also remarked later in the interview that most of the time foreign clients whom they have to deal with speak Chinese due to China’s economic boost. Consequently, English is required only in rare cases. Yet, she was keenly aware of instrumental values of English.
Similar perspectives are found in responses of another non-English user who
‘You believe that your English competence is lower than the average.’
2 那你覺得這樣有什麼壞處嗎
‘What disadvantages do you think that it has?’
→ 3 EGAN 我覺得 (.) 覺得 (.) 競爭能力比較差一點
‘I feel I am less competitive in workplace.’
4 覺得 (.) 有時候 (.) 如果有更好的機會的話
‘Sometimes when I am offered better chances,’
5 ANN 嗯嗯
‘Hmm.’
6 EGAN 我就沒辦法去 (.) 例如說出國去怎樣怎樣
‘I can’t take the offer and go abroad, for example.’
7 比較沒辦法去爭取這些
‘I am in a less privileged position to fight for these chances.’
8 ANN 嗯嗯
‘So the job that you have at the moment,’
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12 如果你英文- 如果自己是有英文能力的
‘You believe that if you are a competent English user,’
13 你覺得可以 (.) 有更好的機會
‘You would have better chances.’
14 EGAN 對
‘Right.’
As far as Egan was concerned, one of the drawbacks in incompetence is less competitiveness (line 3). He stated that he could not fight for better chances (line 4 to 7). Compared with Violet, Egan treated English as an indication of competitiveness.
That is, English may not be intended for communication in the first place. From the excerpts (6) and (7) by non-English users, it could be generalized that English is bestowed great instrumental values in Taiwan for it plays a make-or-break role in labor market. It is considered one of the most essential criteria to get a good job. But the excerpts also demonstrate that English is probably minimally required in workplace. The phenomenon reveals that learning English for instrumental functions may not necessarily entail the use of it. Yet, it has to be pointed out that the finding does not claim that the allocation of functions and values of English is not either-or binary.
It probably takes a person who shifts his/her major from other subjects to English to fully comprehend how instrumental English is. Dawn was a non-English major in college but pursed her master degree in English. For her, the drastic conversion in job opportunities made her realize what a difference English is able to make.
(8)
1 ANN 你有沒有覺得自己因為英文好 (.) 而有什麼好處 (05:25)
‘Do you think that you benefit from your competence?’
2 DAWN 就是要找打工的工作的時候吧
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‘Probably when I was looking for a part-time job’
3 ANN 嗯
‘Hmm’
4 DAWN 然後 (.) 就是 (.) 他們如果知道你 (.) 就是要唸外文系或
什麼的
‘If they know that you are about to major in English,’
→ 5 他們就會比較 (.) 好像比較願意使用你 (.) 這樣子
‘They are more willing to use you.’
6 ANN 使用你((laughs))
‘Use you.’
7 DAWN 願意雇用你((laughs))
‘Hire you.’
Dawn revealed that English make it easier to her to look for a part-time job (line 2). She tried several jobs during the interval between receiving her bachelor degree and the admission to the graduate school. Based on Dawn’s reflection, English is conceptualized as instrumental for it is facilitative in job hunting.
It is found that English is still predominantly perceived to be instrumental. The instrumental values still play an essential role in language ideology of English necessitation. Yet, simultaneously use values of English start to be prioritized. The instrumental functions which refer to English as a facilitator in workplace are the immediate and most practical feature of English to individuals. As far as many non-English users are concerned, English competence equates to better job offers.
4.1.2 Positive attitudes toward English
English is generally considered to be symbolic and instrumental in the society.
Hence, in Taiwan where the number of proficient English users is relatively small, those who are able to use English freely are usually sung high praise of. Furthermore, English users are thought to be more socially and economically advanced. The fact that English indexes to social differentiations instantiates that English is viewed as a
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marker with social and evaluative meanings shared by both speakers and hearers (Labov 1971).
A middle-aged accountant in a publishing company, Helen, considered herself an incompetent English user and expressed her admiration for those who speak English well, shown in (9) below.
(9)
1 ANN 那如果 (.) 你自己認為英文不好
‘If you don’t consider yourself a good English user,’
2 你對那些英文好的人有什麼樣的想法
2 你對那些英文好的人有什麼樣的想法