The research was designed as a quantitative research method study. Beginning research questions included:
1. What are the benefits and dilemmas associated with the international student population in terms of institutional commitments for the expansion of internationalization for Taiwan’s higher education institutions?
2. What are the interpretations of participants in regard to the issues and dilemmas surrounding the international student experience?
Scholars, who conduct research involving international dimensions, note the importance of primary sources as a viable option for data collection (Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery, & Taubman, 1996). In response the investigation was initiated with a review of sources to develop a contemporary reference for the dilemmas and issues of globalization in Taiwan. The inspection of written documents such as books, periodicals, newspapers, and legal documents to gain a foundation for the history, geography, ecological needs, and community efforts at work in Taiwan were ongoing during all stages of investigation.
The survey respondents included 648 degree seeking international students from 23 countries. The survey was used to gather information at a particular point in time with the intention of describing the nature of existing conditions of international student in Taiwan universities (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007). Given this focus the survey was organized by section: Section One: Experiences before and after coming to Taiwan dealt with the logistical and emotional aspects of student mobility, Section Two: Educational experiences in Taiwan, addressed reasons for choosing Taiwan and particular universities, Section Three: Social norms, examined international students’ circle of friends, social interaction norms, and classroom norms, Section Four: Cultural norms, focused on the cultural aspect of the international students’ experiences in Taiwan, and Section Five International Students’
Demography, detailed background information including international students’ social status and scholarship information.
The study utilizes an online survey to gather the information regarding the international students all over Taiwan. The design of the online surveys were kept to a minimum and layout is user friendly, instructions are clear and simple, thus helped in increasing the completion rate of the survey (Dillman, 1999; Dillman, Tortora, &
Bowker, 1998; Dillman, Tortora, Conradt, & Bowker, 1998). The survey data was
statistically analyzed using the mean, standard deviation, frequency and percentage, correlations, and other cross-tabulations to determine the various descriptive summaries of the survey. A revised survey questionnaire was used based on Roberts, Chou, and Ching’s (2010) international student survey. The survey questionnaire was administered on a voluntary basis in October 2008. An email was sent to all the international student offices all throughout Taiwan. The questionnaire was written in two versions: English and Chinese which required approximately 10-20 minutes for completion. A total of 648 participants’ representative of 23 countries completed the questionnaire. Table 1; show that Mandarin Chinese was the predominant first language of participants (39%), which would indicate that most of the international students are from countries such as Mainland China, Macau, and Hong Kong. This is then followed by Vietnam (10%), and Indonesian (9%). Participants’ second languages included English (53%), Mandarin Chinese (20%), and Malaysian (7%).
Around 76% of the sample consisted of international students studying abroad for the first time. In addition, around 80% of the respondents are degree seeking students, with the remaining participants as exchange program students (7%) and Mandarin Chinese Language students (2%). Data gathered from the survey questionnaire were encoded and analyzed using the Statistics Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 15. Internal consistency using Lee Cronbach’s (1951) coefficient alpha (Cronbach’s alpha) was computed at 0.89, suggesting a high level (Nunnally & Bemstein, 1994).
Descriptive analysis included the mean, standard deviation (SD) and cross-tabulation of participants’ multiple responses for identified questions.
Table 1
Participant demographics (N=648)
Items n % M SD
Age 648 24.63 6.39
Gender
Male 297 46 23.87 5.16
Female 346 54 25.28 7.23
First language
Mandarin Chinese 251 39
Vietnamese 67 10
Indonesian (Bahasa) 61 9
Spanish 47 7
English 37 6
Japanese 27 4
Malaysian (Malay) 21 3
Cantonese 19 3
Thailand (Thai) 15 2
Korean 13 2
Second language
English 345 53
Mandarin 131 20
Malaysian (Malay) 44 7
Enrolled program type
Degree Seeking 526 81
Exchange Program Student 43 7 Chinese Mandarin Language Center 12 2 Study abroad experience
Yes 112 17
None 493 76
Work experience in Taiwan
Yes 179 28
None 424 66
Results and Discussions Experiences before and after coming to Taiwan
Section one depicts the experiences before and after coming to Taiwan, which dealt with the logistical and emotional aspects of student mobility. Choosing a host nation involves decisions made with high involvement and commitment, due in part to the expanding options for study abroad destinations around the globe (Cubillo, Sanchez, & Cervino, 2006). One of the most promising factors in Taiwan’s higher education is the presence of scholarship opportunities for international students.
Table 2
Scholarship type and expenditures (N=432)
Items n %
Scholarship type
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) 61 14 Ministry of Education (MOE) – Taiwan Scholarship 104 24
Huayu Enrichment Scholarship 2 0
National Science Council 9 2
Ministry of Economic Affairs 111 26
Others 118 27
Information regarding the scholarship
Taipei Economic and Trade Office (TECO) 61 14
School 274 63
Friends 136 31
Relatives 49 11
Newspaper 13 3
Self-research 69 16
Others 28 6
Average monthly expenditures
Below 10,000 299 46
10,001 to 15,000 165 26
15,001 to 20,000 64 10
20,001 to 25,000 25 4
25,001 to 30,000 28 4
Above 30,000 23 4
Table 2 shows that of the 432 of the 648 respondents (67%) received scholarships offered by either the Taiwan Scholarship Program (jointly funded by the MOE, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Nation Science Council, and the Ministry of Economic Affairs) or the MOE Mandarin Enrichment Scholarship Program (funded by the MOE). Applications for both scholarships are submitted to Taiwan overseas missions located in students’ home nations. Majority are in scholarships given through their universities here in Taiwan, with a value of 118 or 27%. This is then followed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs scholarship, which is given to countries that have diplomatic ties with Taiwan, with a value of 111 or 26%. The third largest is the scholarship given by the Ministry of Education (more commonly called the Taiwan Scholarship), with a value of 104 or 24%. When asked regarding how the international students gathered the information regarding the scholarship offers.
Respondents responded that majority of them learnt about the scholarship in their school back in their country, with a value of 274 or 64%. This is followed by word of mouth transfers from their peers and friends back home, with a value of 136 or 31%.
The third is self-research with a value of 69 or 16%.
The availability of host nation government scholarships is well established as a significant pull factor (Agarwal & Winkler, 1985; Cummings, 1993). Given this, the popularity of Taiwan government scholarships could be viewed as a contributing factor for the expanding international student enrollments. That said participants’
rationale for receiving Taiwan scholarships was not typically linked to financial hardship. Table 2 also summarizes the average monthly expenditures in Taiwan Dollars of the international student in Taiwan. Majority of the students mentioned that they spend below 10,000 NT a month with a value of 299 or 46%. While 165 or 26%
of the respondents claimed that they spent around 10,001 to 15,000 per month in Taiwan. In reality, scholarships in Taiwan provide financial support from one to four years of study and range from NT 25,000 monthly for undergraduate students to NT 30,000 monthly for graduate students. These findings suggest some discrepancy in living standards given that newly graduated college students in Taiwan earn from NT 26, 000 to 28, 000 monthly (CENS, 2008).
In many nations incoming international students represent the premier source for university internationalization. As a newly emerging competitor host nation, Taiwan envisions its national system of higher education as an international center, where people from around the world come to learn from each other. As such the MOE government scholarships enhance the cultural composition of Taiwan universities’
student bodies and contribute to institutional prestige (Lo & Weng, 2005; Mok & Tan, 2004). The immersion of international students among the NCCU local students represents, therefore, a pivotal objective of the university efforts for
internationalization.
Educational experiences in Taiwan
With regards to the educational experiences in Taiwan, students are ask questions regarding the difficulties before coming to Taiwan, challenging aspects in Taiwan, difficulties with regards to educational aspects, and reasons in choosing a place of study in Taiwan. As a reminder, the items are analyzed initially by their weighted scores, items ranked number 1 is given a weight of 3, ranked 2 is given a weight of 2, while the ranked 3 is given a weight of 1. Table 3 shows the result for the difficulties encountered before coming to Taiwan. The highest difficulty item is the application of the Taiwan Visa with 309 or 48%, while the second difficulty item is the actual Scholarship applications with 190 or 29%. The third most difficulty item is the Lack of sufficient information regarding course programs with 176 or 27%. These results suggest that Taiwan should invest more efforts in enhancing its visa processing procedures for the international students coming to Taiwan. However, such enhancement might be limited to the political issues surrounding the country, which is beyond the discussion of the current study.
Table 3
Difficulties encountered before coming to Taiwan (N=648)
Items n Weighted scoresa
Taiwan visa application 309 708
Scholarship applications 190 389
Lack of sufficient information regarding course
programs 176 324
Selecting which school to apply 150 301
Emotional preparation 137 237
Communicating with Taiwan’s university 92 169
Note. aThe respondents’ rankings were given corresponding weights (e.g. 1st priority – 3, 2nd priority – 2, and third priority – 1) before computing for the individual scores of each item.
With regards to the challenges encounter in Taiwan, international students mentioned that the most challenging aspect is the Memorizing Chinese character with 170 or 26%. The second most challenging aspect is regarding the international
students’ social relationships in Taiwan with 172 or 27%. The third most challenging aspect in Taiwan is the Adjusting to the weather with 166 or 26%. Such results describe the difficulties of international student during their first few months in Taiwan, while some even suggest that they (international students) should be given enough orientation regarding the cultural and contextual issues regarding Taiwan, before even they travel to Taiwan.
Table 4
Challenging aspects in Taiwan (N=648)
Items n Weighted scoresa
Memorizing Chinese character 170 402
Social relationship 172 334
Adjusting to weather 166 316
Cultural gap 136 255
Adjusting to food 124 252
Homesickness 112 214
Transportation 97 184
Being a non-English speaker 70 155
Note. aThe respondents’ rankings were given corresponding weights (e.g. 1st priority – 3, 2nd priority – 2, and third priority – 1) before computing for the individual scores of each item.
With regards to the international students difficulties with regards to their study here in Taiwan, most students mentioned that there seem to exist a problem with the Understanding teachers’ lessons/lectures with 216 or 33%. Table 5 also shows that the item expressing or giving your opinion to your teacher with 190 or 29% and the item expressing or communicating in Chinese with 177 or 27%. These results suggest that international students are not properly oriented in the educational system of Taiwan. Local faculty and staff should be brief with regards to the study habit of the international students as well.
Table 5
Difficulties with regards to educational aspects (N=648)
Items n Weighted scoresa
Understanding teachers’ lessons/lectures 216 451 Expressing or giving your opinion to your teacher 190 441 Expressing or communicating in Chinese 177 417
Making oral presentation 199 370
Working on group project 150 336
Studying in a different educational system 150 288
Completing assignment on time 63 131
Managing your study load 45 88
Note. aThe respondents’ rankings were given corresponding weights (e.g. 1st priority – 3, 2nd priority – 2, and third priority – 1) before computing for the individual scores of each item.
Table 6 shows the reasons why the international students select their current school in Taiwan. The main reason is the item recommended by friends/classmates with 240 or 37%. The second reason is the surrounding suitable for learning with 232 or 36%. And lastly, the third reason is the direct contact form an institution in Taiwan with 127 or 20%. Such results indicate that the power of the word of mouth exhibits the greatest influence in the international students’ choice of schools. Hence, institutions should give outgoing international students a sort of orientation or a somewhat good impression, so as to aid in the recruitment of new international students.
Table 6
Reasons for choosing your current institution (N=648)
Items n Weighted scoresa
Recommended by friends/classmates 240 568
Surrounding suitable for learning 232 485
Direct contact form an institution in Taiwan 127 266 Degree program availability in English 118 264
Random chance 110 223
Informative website 101 201
Mandarin Chinese language program 74 148
Recommended by embassy 59 125
Existing student exchange program 44 102
Note. aThe respondents’ rankings were given corresponding weights (e.g. 1st priority – 3, 2nd priority – 2, and third priority – 1) before computing for the individual scores of each item.
Social norms
In recent years, the concept of social capital has captured the imagination and attention of an extensive range of scholars and professionals in various disciplines and practical arenas (Lin, 2008). Similarly, social capital has been used to shed light on the relationship between the micro-level of educational experience and the macro-level of social forces and structures (Burnheim, 2003). Scholars noted that the concept of social capital has expanded from an individual asset to a feature of communities and even nations (Portes, 1998). As such, multiple definitions, conceptualizations, and empirical measurements are generated (Dika & Singh, 2002).
However, the popularity of the concept of social capital has been accompanied by increasing controversy about its actual meaning and effects (Mouw, 2006; Portes, 2000).
Simply, social capital can be defined as “the investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace” (Lin, 2002). This general definition is consistent with the works of noted scholars such as Bourdieu (1986), Burt (1992), Coleman (1988, 1990), Flap (1991, 1994), Lin (1982), Portes (1998), and Putnam (1993, 1995, 2000). During the late 1980s, education sociologists Bourdieu (1986) and Coleman (1988) both emphasized the functional value of social networks and group membership as resources which can be leveraged by individuals to obtain access to other resources. In addition, both authors placed much emphasis on the role of
education and in particular the role of the social environment in determining educational outcomes.
In an educational setting social capital is defined “as the networks, together with norms, values, and understandings that facilitate cooperation with or among groups.”
(Healy, Cote, Helliwell, & Field, 2001) In a study of Australian universities, Burnheim (2003) noted that it is important to understand (1) the particular role of social capital in the networks and networking within the universities, which themselves constitute capital, and (2) the universities’ roles in the creation of the norms, values, and understandings which enable networks to operate. Similarly, in a mixed method study regarding international students in Australia, Neri and Ville (2006) noted that poor social networks in unfamiliar cultural and educational institutions have an adverse impact on the wellbeing and academic performance of the students.
Table 7
Social interaction norms (N=648)
Items n Weighted scoresa
I want more Taiwanese friends 259 623
Taiwanese students have positive feelings towards
me 205 423
I try my best to make friends 181 358
Taiwanese would like to know international
students 175 331
Taiwanese students should take first step 96 213 It is difficult to make friends with Taiwanese
students 67 156
My Chinese ability hinders me from making friends 71 145
I experience discrimination in Taiwan 54 110
Taiwanese students prefer fewer international
students 35 69
Note. aThe respondents’ rankings were given corresponding weights (e.g. 1st priority – 3, 2nd priority – 2, and third priority – 1) before computing for the individual scores of each item.
To further clarify the issues in the network and norms of international students in Taiwan, the following two sections shall focus on these parts, namely: the social
norms and the cultural norms experienced in Taiwan. Table 7 shows the result when the international students were asked regarding their social interaction norms in Taiwan. Most students replied that they wanted to have more Taiwanese friends with total respondents of 259 or 40%. This is followed by the item Taiwanese students have positive feelings towards me with total respondents of 205 or 32%. The third item is I try my best to make friends with total respondents of 181 or 28%. These three top results depict that international students are indeed accepting of Taiwanese students as not only their peers or classmates, but their friends as well.
Table 8 shows the international students aspects regarding their campus and classroom norms. The highest ranked is the item teachers encourage interaction with 144 or 22%. While the second is the item teachers make special effort to help international student with 162 or 25%. And the third is the item cultural differences are respected inside the school with 92 or 14%. Note that although the percentage of the international students selecting the item is not high, however, by looking at their weighted scores, the international students selected this three items as the major norms in the campus and classroom category.
Table 8
Campus and classroom norms (N=648)
Items n Weighted scoresa
Teachers encourage interaction 144 568
Teachers make special effort to help international
student 162 485
Cultural difference is respected in school 92 266 Teachers understand problems of international
student 143 264
Opportunity to learn from other culture 110 223
Feel included in class 130 201
Teachers understand cultural differences in learning 81 158 Classmates are accepting of cultural differences 136 148 Student of different groups work well 136 125
Note. aThe respondents’ rankings were given corresponding weights (e.g. 1st priority – 3, 2nd priority – 2, and third priority – 1) before computing for the individual scores of each item.
Table 9 depicts the international students’ circle of friends in different situations,
such as: social and educational. Results indicate that the international students’
educational and social time is mostly done with Taiwanese students, while their closest friends are still their friends from their own home country.
Table 9
International students’ circle of friends (N=648)
Items n Weighted
scoresa
Studying and reviewing lessons
Taiwanese students 334 909
Students from other countries 236 592
Students from their own country 211 411 During social activities
Taiwanese students 345 903
Students from other countries 303 745 Students from their own country 244 458 Closest friends
Taiwanese students 289 716
Students from other countries 293 791 Students from their own country 197 391 Note. aThe respondents’ rankings were given corresponding weights (e.g. 1st priority – 3, 2nd priority – 2, and third priority – 1) before computing for the individual scores of each item.
Cultural norms,
The students are also asked regarding their perception of what is the accepted fact in the world today. Majority of the international students agrees that advancement in technology is the most prominent discovery of our generation, next to the learning of Mandarin Chinese language. Such results indicate that the changes in language needs are both ways, to the East the Mandarin Chinese and to the West the English language.
Table 10
Accepted fact in today’s society (N=648)
Items n Weighted scoresa
Technology connects people 180 393
Technology makes the world smaller 175 384
Learning Mandarin Chinese is the current trend 184 364 Local traditional customs should be maintain 166 347 People should leave together in harmony 124 275
English is most widely spoken language 86 196
Note. aThe respondents’ rankings were given corresponding weights (e.g. 1st priority – 3, 2nd priority – 2, and third priority – 1) before computing for the individual scores of each item.
Table 11 and table 12 shows the discouraging and distinct Taiwanese cultures which the international students felt unique and different, while some of items selected are considered norm to the Eastern or Asian culture. Much to the surprise of the selection of activities regarding night market as one of the major Taiwanese cultures the international students felt worth recalling.
Table 11
Discouraging Taiwanese cultural norms (N=648)
Items n Weighted scoresa
Chopsticks 139 366
Fortune telling 127 260
Poultry slaughtering in market 83 181
Eating hotpot 60 111
Eating bethel nut 55 102
Incense burning 53 95
Going KTV 47 93
Shopping at night market 23 36
Note. aThe respondents’ rankings were given corresponding weights (e.g. 1st priority – 3, 2nd priority – 2, and third priority – 1) before computing for the individual scores of each item.
Table 12
Distinct Taiwanese cultures (N=648)
Items n Weighted scoresa
Shopping at night market 289 662
Eating at night market 220 493
Garbage segregation (sorting of garbage) 269 484
Poultry slaughtering in market 134 299
Eating hotpot 148 279
Going KTV 82 172
Eating bethel nut 71 157
Environmentally conscious 66 134
Chopsticks 12 32
Incense burning 12 26
Fortune telling 15 25
Note. aThe respondents’ rankings were given corresponding weights (e.g. 1st priority – 3, 2nd priority – 2, and third priority – 1) before computing for the individual scores of each item.