Social-cultural theory

Sociocultural theory proposed by Vygotsky supported the relationship between language learning and the environment. According to Vygotsky (1962), language plays an essential role in cognitive development when a child obtains a certain level of language competence (Hamers &

Blanc, 2000). Moreover, he believed that language acquisition and development come from

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simple socialization with other people. It also provides an individual ability to learn and apprehend a language faster in real-life situations other than in classrooms.

Based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach to language development, Kozulin (1998) proposed that different social settings must have different influences on speech acquisition of the child. Vygotsky saw basic relationship between thought and speech in which one offering resources for the other and he considered language as essential factor in forming thought and establishing personality features (Kozulin, 2002). One of the key contributions of sociocultural theory to the language learning is the concept of “participation” which links the social context with individual acquisition (Pavlenko and Lantolf, 2000). It is very difficult for someone to master a language without other people’s participation in interactions through the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

2.4.1 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The concept of Zone of Proximal Development was first introduced by Vygotsky (1978).

He defined it as “the distance between the actual developmental problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p. 86). The concept of ZPD is expanded far beyond the original from due to dissatisfaction with two practical issues which are assessment of a child’s intellectual abilities and the evaluation of instructional practices (Turuk, 2008). Vygotsky argues that the testing techniques that are employed only evaluate the actual level of development and ignore the potential abilities of the child. It should focus more on the potential abilities of a child.

ZPD makes contribution to creating the mental functions of a child which has not become mature yet and will develop in the future. Cook (2008) claims that distinctive aspect of Vygotsky’s ZPD lies in the fact that “the gap between the learner’s current state and their future knowledge is bridged by assistance from others; learning demands social interaction so that the learner can internalize knowledge out of external action” (p. 229). Learning process helps to activate a range of internal development functions if a child interacts with his or her peers or the adults in his or her environment. When the internalization of the learning process happens for the child, it becomes part of his or her achievements. Vygotsky argues that the child’s development and intellectual possibilities specify the boundaries of the child’s possible development. He also

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claims that instruction is the one of the determining factor in ZPD. Shayer (2002) also suggests that “good instruction should proceed ahead of development and should awaken and rouse to life an entire set of functions, which are in the stage of maturation and lie in the ZPD. It is in this way that instruction can play an extremely important role in development” (p.249). A major pedagogical implication of ZPD is its emphasis on the collaboration and social interaction.

Newman, Gleitman and Cole (1989) consider dialogic interaction and social mediation as the essential components for learning and development to occur. In a word, social environment and interactions with people in the community make great contribution to a child’s language acquisition and competence.

2.4.2 Mediation Theory

Concept of mediation is one of the most important aspects of sociocultural theory.

Mediation refers to the process by which socially meaningful activities transform impulsive, unmediated, and natural behavior into higher mental processes through the use of instruments or tools (Minick, 1987). Williams and Burden (1997) also point out that for Vygotsky and his followers, mediation refers to the use of “tools” to help deal with problems or achieve goals. The most important of these tools is symbolic language. The use of meditational language to help learners move into and through their ZPD is particular significance (p.65). For instance, in the process of development, children’s direct or unmediated memory transfers into mediated memory (i.e., remembering by means of language or other signs). In one of experimental studies, Vygotsky (1978) could indicate that children who initially quite poorly remembered a list of words were able to perform well when they were able to use picture cards to mediate their remembering process. In elaborating the notion of mediation, Kozulin (1990, 2002) classified three major categories: mediation through material tools (such as picture cards, concrete objects, and so on); mediation through symbolic systems (silently rehearsing the words); and mediation through another human being (children may be supported by an adult in the process of remembering).

Sociocultural theory rejects the view related to the unified nature of thinking and speaking. It also does not agree with the communicative view of language which recommends that thinking and speaking are totally independent phenomena and that speaking acts as a transmitter of already shaped thoughts. Sociocultural theory suggests that thinking and speaking

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as independent components are closely linked. Lantolf (2000) states that “while separate, thinking and speaking are tightly interrelated in a dialectic unity in which publicly derived speech completes privately initiated thought” (p.7). However, it is impossible to explain thought without its connection with language and how it manifests itself through it and linguistic activities cannot be accounted for without involving what the related thought is. Vygotsky (1978) claims that “thought and speech are two intersecting circles. In their overlapping parts, thought and speech coincide to produce what is called verbal thought. Verbal thought does not include all forms of thought. There is a vast area of thought that has no direct relation to speech. The thinking manifested in the use of tools belongs in this area, as does practical intellect in general”

(p. 87).

2.4.3 Activity theory

Activity theory is one of the components of SCT. It was developed by one of Vygotsky’s student, A. Leontev. The concept of activity theory is to deal with the unified nature of human behavior, which is considered to be the result of the integration of social and cultural mediations.

According to Lantolf (2000), an activity is motivated by a need which may be either social, like the need to get literate or biological, such as the need for food, which is hunger. Therefore, it is believed that motives emerge through certain activities which are goal-directed and are accomplished under certain conditions.

There are several studies conducted to explore the implications of activity theory for second/foreign language acquisitions, and to find out how activity theory brings new insights for language development (Gillette, 1994; Parks, 2000). Coghlan and Duff (1994, cited in Wen, 2008) analyze a task-based performance from the activity theory perspective. They argue that scholars always view tasks as being scientifically controllable and measurable, yet they express their doubt about the constant nature of a task and argue that tasks are quite variable. They also suggest that different people have different reaction to the same task. They believe learners play an active role and learners are active agents who offer specific directions to the activities.

Furthermore, on the same task, in different times and conditions learners have different impacts on their performance. “The activity becomes unique for each learner because it emerges from the interaction between the speakers and the interviewer, the setting, the subjects’ motivations and

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histories. Therefore, it cannot be separated from its sociocultural context, from which it is co-constructed” (Wen, 2008, p.20).

In order to explain the issue of individual differences, Gillette (1994) conducts a series of in-depth case studies in the activity of language acquisition. She proposes that the learning outcome is closely associated with the learners’ motives and their motives are socially and historically constructed. For example, different learners have different points of view and purposes about second language acquisition to meet their demands. In other words, she attributed the degree of success of learners in the language learning process to their motive, goal and value, which are constructed socially and historically. In line with Gillette (1994), Wen (2008) also sees language learning through the lens of activity theory and believes that learners’ motives, goals and condition of learning should beconsidered in order to choose certain tasks for language teaching He argues that “while task-based language learning and teaching could yield positive learning outcomes, there can be no guarantees, because what ultimately matters is how individual learners decided to engage with the task as an activity” (p. 22).

2.4.4 Scaffolding

In 1998, Richard Donato applied Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory to second language acquisition practice. This is known as collective scaffolding in second language learning.

Collective scaffolding was developed based on the theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which Vygotsky (1978) clarified as “the distance between the actual developmental problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p.86). In one study of Donato, the results shows that scaffolding helps learners acquire language more efficiently with support from more capable individuals, such as teachers, parents or expert native speakers. In addition, scaffolding offers learners opportunities to exchange input and expand their own knowledge.

Jorome Bruner (1986) describes scaffolding as social assistance. He notices that children acquire their first language while their parents provide scaffolding with continuous help to them via conversational formats. Lantolf (2007) elaborates on the characteristics of collaborative interaction. He describes that learners scaffold with other ones when they participate in collaborative activity and such collaboration may lead to the co-construction of linguistic

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knowledge. The concept of scaffolding suggests that the knowledgeable people, such as adults, teachers, parents and so on, support the less knowledgeable, such as children or students, to complete a task that they are not able to do by themselves. The basic idea of scaffolding is to facilitate L2 learning, it needs to exist within a learner’s ZPD. Cook (2008) finds the relationship between scaffolding and teachability concept by stating that “you cannot teach things that are currently out of the learner’s reach” (p. 229). The concept of teachability is that one cannot teach things which are beyond the current knowledge level of the learner.

Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) conducted a research which explored the impact of corrective feedback within the ZPD on L2 learning. The result of the study showed that corrective feedback should be modified over time so that the learners can take the responsibilityfor their own learning. Moreover, Nassaji and Swain (2000) claimed that corrective feedback offered within the learner’s ZPD is more effective than the corrective feedback provided to the learners regardless of their ZPD. Brown (2007) also compares Krashen’s Input Hypothesis to Vygotsky’s ZPD, because he believes that the ZPD is developed from a social interactionist’s perspective which emphasizes on the role of others how help the learners acquire what they cannot do by themselves. Cook (2008) argues that the gap between the learners’

current level of knowledge and what he/she is going to learn is eliminated by the support provided by the experts. He holds “learning demands social interaction so that the learner can internalize knowledge out of external action” (p. 229).

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