Chapter 2. Literature Review
2.4. Push-and-Pull Factors of Student Mobility
2.4.2. Studies Applying the Push-Pull Framework
國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
characteristics.46 For students, external factors may include the relative strength of the economy or education system at home that make leaving an option, or the policies and scholarship opportunities in a destination that make it an attractive option. Internal factors may include a student’s competitiveness in the education systems they seek to enter, personal contacts in the destination country, and familiarity with the destination. While historically we have seen that the industrialized countries of North America and Western Europe have dominated in international student recruitment, several studies have applied the push-pull framework to student mobility around the Asia Pacific region.
2.4.2. Studies Applying the Push-Pull Framework
Several studies have applied the push-pull framework to groups of international students in recent years, using a variety of research and analytical methods. Eder, Smith, and Pitts’ 2010 study of international students’ destination choice conducted interviews with international students via online chat about their decisions to study in the United States.47 The study utilized qualitative analysis methods to identify the most prevalent push and pull factors affecting the students’ choices, who consisted of semester- or year-long exchange students. The authors identified personal growth in a new country, the importance of language learning in a foreign context, and benefits to the students’ future careers as the most prevalent push factors affecting student’s choice to pursue a study-abroad program, indicating that foreign students “exhibit forward thinking and planning”
in their decision to get a study abroad experience. The study found that significant pull factors for the United States involved the characteristics of the college (such as course offerings, availability of departments and programs, and the atmosphere of the American college), the physical geography of the host institution’s city, and American culture. One significant structural issue, which could be characterized as a negative push factor of the United States as a study abroad destination, is the complex and expensive visa application process.48 This study therefore paints a portrait of a sample of international students in the United States for short-term study as a group of forward-thinking individuals.
Furthermore, the United States benefits from having strong cultural assets that make it an
46 Mei Li and Mark Bray, op. cit., pp. 791-818.
47 Judith Eder, Wayne W. Smith, and Robert E. Pitts, “Exploring Factors Influencing Student Study Abroad Destination Choice,” Yournal of Teaching in Travel and Tourism, vol. 10, 2010, pp. 232-250.
48 Judith Eder, Wayne W. Smith, and Robert E. Pitts, op. cit., pp. 238-242.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
attractive destination for students, despite structural constraints such as the visa application process.
Maringe and Carter applied the framework to the movement of African students to universities in the United Kingdom.49 Utilizing focus group interviews with students and staff of two universities in England, the authors found push factors linked to the economic and political circumstances in their home countries. Students spoke of economic
stagnation, political instability, and a general lack of capacity in local higher education systems that drove them to seek out their tertiary degrees away from home. Pull factors in the United Kingdom that drove students’ decision to study there included international recognition and quality of UK higher education institutions as well as a safe teaching and learning environment. The United Kingdom’s university relatively simple and
straightforward application process for students was also a significant pull factor for students, especially when compared to the United States.These comprise strong external pull factors for African students choosing the United Kingdom for study. Internal pull factors relating to the students’ own aspiration included opportunities for better career prospects with a UK degree and the opportunity to experience life abroad.50
In the Asia Pacific Region, several studies have attempted to draw the conversation Eastward. Mazzarol and Soutar are among the most prevalent authors applying the push-pull framework to international student flows, particularly to Australia.
Using surveys of international students, they conducted several studies revealing key pull factors of Australia and Australian institutions. The aforementioned study by Mazzarol, Kemp, and Savery analyzed the factors influencing Taiwanese and Indonesian
international students’ decisions to study in countries other than Australia.51 While their research aimed to evaluate Australia’s international higher education marketing strategy and determine places for improvement in the recruitment of international students, Mazzarol et al concluded at the time that availability of information and pre-existing ties to a destination country were strong pull factors for Taiwanese students to choose the United States over Australia, even though both countries provided similar advantages for international students.52 Other factors include cost issues. Mazzarol and Soutar defined
49 Felix Maringe and Steve Carter, “International Students’ motivations for studying in UK HE: Insights into the Choice and Decision Making of African Students,” International Journal of Educational Management, vol. 21, no. 6, 2007, pp. 459-475.
50 Felix Maringe and Steve Carter, op. cit., pp. 465-467.
51 Tim Mazzarol, Steven Kemp, and Lawson Savery, op. cit., p. 8.
52 Tim Mazzarol, Steven Kemp, and Lawson Savery, op. cit., p. 16
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
these as not only the immediate monetary cost of studying abroad but also the social cost associated with migrating for school, which includes the level of crime or racial
discrimination in a host country, the population of overseas students in the host country, and other social and environmental factors that contribute to the comfort of an
international student in a host country.53
Also mentioned above is Li and Bray’s 2007 study of the flow of students in Greater China, which analyzed the push and pull factors of Mainland Chinese students choosing to study in Hong Kong and Macau. Also drawing from questionnaires and interviews, Li and Bray’s study revealed some common motivations and characteristics for Chinese students to choose universities in Hong Kong and Macau. For Mainland Chinese students, the draw of Hong Kong and Macau included a common ethnic identity, the blending of Chinese and Western influence in education, and specific features of institutions themselves. Chinese students in Hong Kong were drawn most strongly by academic motivations, while Chinse students in Macau were drawn by social and cultural motivations firstly, followed by academic motivations. This study also highlights the thinking of Chinese students and their families: students in this study viewed higher education outside of China serves as a tool of upward social mobility and individual economic advancement. Disadvantages of Hong Kong and Macau as places to study for mainland Chinese students (comprising the negative push factors in the model) included limited space, limited employment opportunities after graduation, and lower value placed on some fields and institutions in the case of Macau.54 Li and Bray’s study both applies a two-way push-pull framework and focuses on the Asia Pacific region, both of which are of interest to the current study.
Looking specifically at China and Taiwan, Chuing Prudence Chou and Gregory S.
Ching in 2015 analyzed the motivations and rationales of Mainland Chinese students in Taiwanese higher education institutions.55 Their study surveyed both degree-seeking and exchange students from the Chinese mainland who were in Taiwan, focusing mainly on the pull factors Taiwan offers. The results of Chou and Ching’s study emphasized the academic and cultural advantages of studying in Taiwan, including “knowing the culture
53 Tim Mazarol and Geoffrey Norman Soutar, The Global Market for Higher Education: Sustainable Competitive Strategies for the New Millennium, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2001, pp. 63-64.
54 Mei Li and Mark Bray, op. cit., pp. 791-818.
55 Chuing Prudence Chou and Gregory S. Ching, “Cross-Stratization of Higher Education: Voices of the Mainland Chinese Students Studying in Taiwan,” International Journal of Information and Education Technology, vol. 5, no. 2, 2015: pp. 89-94.
‧ 國
立 政 治 大 學
‧
N a tio na
l C h engchi U ni ve rs it y
first hand…the opportunity to travel and experience life in Taiwan, various curriculum programs’ availability, numerous cultural related activities, shopping experiences, and healthy lifestyle.” Negative push factors in Taiwan for Mainland students included legal restrictions on students’ work and scholarship opportunities, a lack of activities for Mainland Chinese students, and misconceptions among locals about Mainland Chinese people. On the whole, however, the Mainland students surveyed in Chou and Ching’s study largely reported positive experiences on the island.56 Overall, the study highlights both internal and external push and pull factors associated with Mainland Chinese students migrating to Taiwan for study. Legal restrictions on Chinese students’ ability to choose particular fields of study, work in Taiwan, or stay in Taiwan after their studies conclude make up several strong external push factors of Taiwan as a place for mainland Chinese students to study. However, the internal pull factor of students’ desire to
understand Taiwan first-hand and experience a different culture also contributed to Chinese students’ assessments of their own decisions to study in Taiwan.
The current literature on international students in the Asia Pacific region highlight push factors and pull factors associated not only with macro-level political and economic structures but also the internal motivations and aspirations of individual students. These studies also continue to view mainland China as a significant source of cross-border students. While this decision-making process is highly subjective and personal to each individual, the studies reviewed above demonstrate several ways to apply the push-pull framework to understand the movement of students across borders.
Applying the push-pull framework to the flow of students from Taiwan to mainland China provides an opportunity to observe commonalities in perceptions of Taiwanese graduate school applicants within the context of Taiwan and China’s complex political and economic relationship. By considering Taiwan and China’s relative positions in the global economy the relative status of their higher education systems, and interest in each other’s political affairs, we may understand more about the population of students who migrate to mainland China for study and their role in building cross-strait relations.
56 Chuing Prudence Chou and Gregory S. Ching, op. cit., pp. 92-93.