CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 A T HEORY OF C HRISTIANIZATION
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Chapter 2. Theoretical Framework
Before I examine whether FGS and IKT’s innovation is a process of glocal-modernization or Christianization, I shall first define the two terms Christianization and glocal-modernization. Thus, I will divide this chapter into three sections. In the first section, I will first explain the concept of Christianization. Next, I will introduce a theory of glocal-modernization (2.2) and define globalization, modernization and localization, after explaining Christianization and providing a theory of glocal-modernization. The third section will concentrate on the political and religious environment in contemporary Taiwan and Macau so that we can look at the bigger picture of Taiwan and Macau’s religious environment.
2.1 A Theory of Christianization
In the 19th century, Chinese political and intellectual leaders had been extremely sensitive to Western’s judgments and analyses regarding Chinese religions.27 During that period, when Chinese elites and the Chinese society were facing a national crisis and the problem of modernity, Christianity was viewed as an indicator of a modern and advanced religion. Although Goossaert and Palmer use the term “Christian-secular normative model”28 and Weller uses the term “religionization”29, these two terms both mean that Christianity is taken as the prototype of religion.
Under the influence of Western Christianity culture, the Christianization of Chinese religion primarily reflects on (a) the state-religion relation, (b) Christianity
27 Vincent Goossaert, David A. Palmer, The Religious Question in Modern China, p. 73.
28 Ibid, p. 74.
29 Robert P. Weller, “Global Religious Changes and Civeil Life in Two Chinese Societies: A Comparison of Jiangsu and Taiwan”, p. 14.
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serves as the prototype of religion, and people assess Chinese religions through this
“lens” of religion and (c) Chinese religions’ reform on their institutional structure, clerical training, community organizations and social engagement.
On the state-religion relation aspect, the state provides legal status to religions and allows them to establish organizations of clerics and social welfare, temples and academics.30 In this way, the state could easily interact with different religions. Both Taiwan and Macau Government adopt the religion-related policies of Western nation-states, putting religions at an either “legal” or “illegal” status . Religious organizations in Taiwan and Macau have to register in a related government department and follow certain rules. These rules include religious land and building, religion and education and religion and medicine etc. To compare these two places, Taiwan has a more complex religious legal system than Macau. (See 2.3, a brief introduction of Taiwan and Macau)
Any discussion on whether Christianity serves as the prototype of religion, leads to an analysis of religions through its classics and doctrines. While Buddhism has its own sets of classics and tenets and IKT tactfully includes all five major religions’ classics, Daoism encountered the challenge of what it teaches and was reshaped based on its tenets and its classics. Consequently, the elements that were recognized as appropriate by the state became the core of modern Daoism, while the others were excluded, deprecated and even destroyed.31 With an attempt to make Daoism fulfil the framework of religion and keep up with modernization, some Daoist temples in
30 Shu-wei Hsieh, “Daoism and Nationalism in Modern and Contemporary China”, p. 257.
31 Ibid, p. 257.
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Taiwan (the Zhinan temple and Dalongdong Baoan temple) and Macau (the Daoist Association) organizes courses which teach Daoist classics. In the process of Christianization or religionization, some elements in Chinese religion have been watered down, classified as part of the “cultural heritage” or labelled as superstition (mixin 迷信).32
Under the influence of Christianity, Chinese religions innovative their institutional structure, clerical training, community organizations and social engagement. While most Buddhist groups, especially FGS under the leadership of Master Hsing Yun, have a more concentrate organizational structure and a leading figure, whereas the organizational structure of Daoism and folk religions are less concrete. Not being counted into the five major religions, the syncretic religion IKT has a clear vertical structure as well. Both FGS and IKT set up a set of promotion guidelines in which lay followers are also included. Lay followers are empowered to participate in different community organization, and they usually work as volunteers.
In early periods of Taiwan (before the 19th century) and Macau (16th to 19th centuries), Christianity dominated the field of education, and it introduced Western medicine. Until the 19th century, Chinese religions start to establish Academies and schools in the modern education system to improve the clerics’ educational level and to provide an educational opportunity for people. Four of the very influential Buddhist organizations and IKT have established educational institutions on different levels (Tzu Chi: 2 universities and 2 secondary schools33; FGS: 4 universities and 6 Non-tertiary
32 Ibid, p. 257.
33 慈濟，〈慈濟全球資訊網 持慈濟〉，adopted 29 May 2019.
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educational institutions34; Chung Tai Chan Monastery: 1 high school and 1 elementary school35; Dharma Drum Mountain: 3 tertiary educational institutions36; IKT: 2 tertiary educational institutions37). Even Daoist temples (Zhinan temple and Dalongdong Baoan Temple established a Daoist college respectively) set up a college for fitting in the religion framework, adopting modernization and changing the public’s stereotype that Daoists are less educated. Besides educational institutions, Chinese religions found hospitals or clinics as well. The uprising of Tzu Chi is because of the hospital that it sets up in Hualian in 1986, and it provides disaster relief all over the world. FGS, another influential Buddhist organization, provides mobile clinics in the early days and hospice-care. While Chinese religions in Taiwan actively engage in the field of education and medical service, there’s only one Buddhist Association in Macau that provides 30 free clinic quotas a day regularly.
Christianity is the first religion to develop student fellowships within schools. It sponsors camps as a mean to attract young people. Inspired by Christianity, Chinese religions, particularly FGS and IKT, organize a summer camp for students to propagate their faith. While FGS organizes one-month spiritual retreat and summer camp for students in Taiwan and Macau (See Image 3 – 2), Fa-Yi Chong De of IKT runs the most successful mess, and its mess groups for college students cover close to fifty tertiary educational institutions in Taipei (See Chart 4 – 9).
34 佛光山，〈佛光山全球資訊網〉，adopted 29 May 2019.
35 中台山佛教基金會，〈中台世界 – 教育體系〉，adopted 29 May 2019.
36 法鼓山，〈法鼓山全球資訊 – 大學院教育〉，adopted 29 May 2019.
37 一貫道，〈崇德學院〉，adopted 29 May 2019.
一貫道，〈天皇學院〉，adopted 29 May 2019.
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Even though Christianity experienced its heyday in the early period of Taiwan (pre – 1949 and 1949 - 1960) and Macau (from 16th to 19th centuries), and it dominated the fields of social welfare and education. Unlike Taiwan, the new religious movement and thriving of Chinese religions do not happen in Macau. The scale of religions' social engagement and religious goods provided by Chinese religions in Macau cannot compare with those in Taiwan. Most of the Chinese religions in Macau do not use Christianity as a reference to reform and innovate themselves, only the FGS and IKT branches have introduced the Christianized or reformation elements that they inherit from their headquarters in Taiwan.