中國宗教的全球在地現代化或基督宗教化? - 以台灣和澳門的佛光山和一貫道為例 - 政大學術集成

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(1)國立政治大學宗教研究所碩士學位論文. Glocal-modernization or Christianization?. 治 and Macau: Chinese Religions 政in Taiwan 大. 立. FoGuang Shan and I-Kuan Tao. ‧ 國. 學. 中國宗教的全球在地現代化或基督宗教化? - 以. ‧. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. 台灣和澳⾨的佛光⼭和⼀貫道為例. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 指導教授：郭承天研究⽣：鍾倩儀 Sin-I Chong. 中華民國 108 年 3 ⽉（March, 2019）. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(2) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(3) Acknowledgement After I had worked as a full-time teacher for two years, I decided to pursue my master degree at National ChengChi University. I have to say I am blessed, and I would like to express my deepest gratitude to people who have offered me help and support. My mentor Professor Cheng-Tian Kuo, who is a person with a spirit of adventure regarding research and scholarship, has been giving me guidance and support. The door to Prof. Kuo’s office was always open; without his persistent advice and help, this dissertation would not have been possible. I want to thank my committee members, Professor Ching-Chih Lin and Professor Chue-Ming Shi. Professor Ching-Chih Lin had given me support and great advice when I was writing my dissertation. I am gratefully indebted to the committee members for. 政治大. their valuable comments on this dissertation.. Finally, I must express my very profound gratitude to all faculty members of the. 立. Graduate Institute of Religious Studies at National Cheng Chi University for their help. ‧ 國. 學. and support. I also thank my mum, who always respects my choice and gives me enough freedom to pursue what I want. My friend Zoe Cheang, who I have known since kindergarten, has been providing me with unfailing support and continuous. ‧. encouragement through my years of study and through the process of researching and. sit. y. Nat. writing this dissertation.. n. al. er. io. Thanks for all your encouragement! Sin-I Chong. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(4) 立. 政治大. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(5) Abstract Because of Taiwan and Macau’s own geographic, political and sovereignty problems, the living space of religions in Taiwan and Macau was once advantageous for Christianity. Some scholars bring up the concept of “Christianization”, and some other scholars think some Buddhist sects emulate Christianity and take Christianity as a reference to innovate themselves to compete with and face the challenge of Christianity. However, if Christianization is an authentic conviction, it can’t explain. 政治大. why Christianity has not developed well while Chinese religions become dominant in. 立. Taiwan and Macau. The lifting of martial law in Taiwan and the 1-2-3 Riot in Macau. ‧ 國. 學. were the turning points of Christianity’s favourable situation, Christianity fails to prosper in these two places, and the number of Christians continues to constitute less. ‧. than 10 per cent of the total population. This master thesis will focus on the selected. y. Nat. er. io. sit. religions’ organizational structure, their innovation on doctrine and rituals and their propagation strategies, to examine whether the success of Chinese religions is due to. al. n. v i n Cadoption their glocal-modernization or the FoGuang Shan and Fah e n gofcChristianization. hi U. Yi Chong De of I-Kuan Tao are two religions that have been developing in both Taiwan and Macau prosperously. Thus, I select FoGuang Shan and Fa-Yi Chong De of I-Kuan Tao for comparison.. Keywords: Glocal-modernization, Christianization, FoGuang Shan (FGS), I-Kuan Tao (IKT), Fa-Yi Chong De. 1. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(6) 摘要因為台灣和澳門自身的地理、政治和主權問題，台灣和澳門的宗教生存環境曾經是對基督宗教相對有利的。一些學者提出了「基督宗教化」的概念，而另外一些學者認為一些佛教團體以基督宗教作為模仿對象，認為中國宗教為了面對基督宗教的挑戰會把其作為他們改革自身的參照物。如果這種想法是成立的，那為何基督宗教並沒有蓬勃發展反而其他的中國宗教在台灣和澳門成為了主流。台灣戒嚴和澳門的 12.3 事件是基督宗教有利形勢的轉折點，基督宗教無. 政治大國宗教的成功是基於他們的全球在地化抑或是基督宗教化，本文選取佛光山和立法在台、澳蓬勃發展而基督徒人數一直在總人口占少於百分之十。為了探討中. ‧. ‧ 國. Nat. y. 教方法。. 學. 一貫道的發一崇德為研究的對象，並聚焦在他們的組織結構、教義、儀式和傳. n. al. er. io. sit. 關鍵詞：全球在地現代化，基督宗教化，佛光山，一貫道，發一崇德. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 2. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(7) ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... 1 摘要................................................................................................................................................... 2. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 6 1.1 RESEARCH MOTIVATION AND BACKGROUND ........................................................................................ 6 1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................... 10 1.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 17 CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ......................................................................................... 18 2.1 A THEORY OF CHRISTIANIZATION .................................................................................................... 18 2.2 A THEORY OF GLOCAL-MODERNIZATION ........................................................................................... 22 2.3 POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS ENVIRONMENT IN CONTEMPORARY TAIWAN AND MACAU .................................. 27. 政治大 Religious Environment in Macau 立 .............................................................................................. 29 Religious Environment in Taiwan ............................................................................................. 27. ‧ 國. 學. CHAPTER 3. GLOCAL-MODERNIZATION OF FGS IN TAIWAN AND MACAU ........................................ 33 3.1 FROM VEN. TAIXU TO MASTER HSING YUN ....................................................................................... 33. ‧. 3.2 FGS’ DEVELOPMENT IN TAIWAN..................................................................................................... 36 3.3 THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF FGS IN TAIWAN ........................................................................ 39. Nat. sit. y. 3.4 FGS’ DOCTRINE AND RITUALS ........................................................................................................ 42. io. er. 3.5 FGS’ PROSELYTIZING EFFORTS IN TAIWAN......................................................................................... 45 Promoting Buddha Dharma Through Mass Media, Presswork, and Social Network ................. 46. n. al. i n U. v. Holy Songs and Sports as Cultivation ...................................................................................... 49. Ch. engchi. Educational Institutions........................................................................................................... 51 Philanthropy ........................................................................................................................... 55 Pilgrimage .............................................................................................................................. 56 Spiritual Retreat ...................................................................................................................... 57 3.6 FGS’ DEVELOPMENT IN MACAU ..................................................................................................... 58 3.7 THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF FGS IN MACAU ......................................................................... 61 3.8 FGS’ PROSELYTIZING IN MACAU ..................................................................................................... 61 CHAPTER 4. GLOCAL-MODERNIZATION OF FA-YI CHONG DE IN TAIWAN AND MACAU .................... 69 4.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF IKT, THE ORIGIN AND INSTITUTIONAL REFORM OF FA-YI CHONG DE ............................. 69 4.2 FA-YI CHONG DE’S DEVELOPMENT IN TAIWAN ................................................................................... 73 4.3 FA-YI CHONG DE’S DEVELOPMENT IN MACAU ................................................................................... 75 4.4 THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF FA-YI CHONG DE IN TAIWAN AND MACAU ....................................... 80 3. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(8) 4.5 FA-YI CHONG DE’S DOCTRINE AND RITUALS IN TAIWAN AND MACAU ...................................................... 83 4.6 FA-YI CHONG DE’S PROPAGATION IN TAIWAN AND MACAU .................................................................. 90 Tools for Propagation ............................................................................................................. 96 CHAPTER 5. A SUMMARY COMPARISON OF FGS AND IKT .............................................................. 102 6.1 FGS AND IKT’S DEVELOPMENT IN TAIWAN AND MACAU .................................................................... 103 6.2 FGS AND IKT’S ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE ................................................................................. 106 6.3 FGS AND IKT’S DOCTRINE AND RITUALS ......................................................................................... 108 6.4 FGS AND IKT’S PROPAGATION STRATEGIES ..................................................................................... 108 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 111 APPENDIX 1.. FGS MACAU BRANCH’S YEAR CALENDAR ................................................... 115. 政治大. BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................... 121. 立. ‧ 國. 學. CHART 1- 1 OVERVIEW OF TAIWANESE’ RELIGIOUS BELIEF (UNIT: %) ................................................................... 8 CHART 1- 2 OVERVIEW OF MACAU CITIZENS’ RELIGIOUS BELIEF IN 1981 AND 1991 (UNIT: %) ................................. 9 CHART 1- 3 OVERVIEW OF MACAU CITIZENS’ RELIGIOUS BELIEF IN 2005, 2007 AND 2009 (UNIT: %) ........................ 9. ‧. sit. y. Nat. CHART 2- 1 COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL AND GLOCAL-MODERNIZATIONAL RELIGIONS. ...................................... 25. al. er. io. CHART 3- 1 SOCIAL WELFARES AND PHILANTHROPIES PROVIDED BY FGS ............................................................ 39. v i n FC 60 U h e ................................................................................ i h n S - gRc ............................................................ 64. n. CHART 3- 2 FGS’ BUDDHIST ACADEMIES .................................................................................................... 52 CHART 3- 3 SUBSIDIES FROM THE MACAU. OUNDATION. CHART 3- 4 FGSMBC’S ONE-DAY RETREAT AND. HORT TERM ETREAT. CHART 4- 1 THE INSTITUTIONAL REFORM OF THE PEACE DOJO ......................................................................... 72 CHART 4- 2 SUBSIDY FROM MACAU FOUNDATION ........................................................................................ 76 CHART 4- 3 FA-YI CHONG DE’S DONATION ................................................................................................. 80 CHART 4- 4 THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF I-KUAN TAO ....................................................................... 82 CHART 4- 5 THE ARRIVAL AND DEPARTURE RITUAL ....................................................................................... 86 CHART 4- 6 THE MORNING AND EVENING INCENSE-OFFERING RITUAL ............................................................... 86 CHART 4- 7 THE RITUAL ON THE FIRST AND FIFTEEN DAY ................................................................................ 88 CHART 4- 8 FA-YI CHONG DE’S ACTIVITIES FOR YOUNG CHILDREN AND COLLEGE STUDENTS IN TAIWAN AND MACAU ... 92 CHART 4- 9 THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MESS IN TAIPEI .................................................................................. 93 CHART 4- 10 DECLINE OF FA-YI CHONG DE’S DAO MEMBER IN THE FIVE-YEAR TRAINING COURSES (TAIWAN) ............ 99 4. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(9) CHART 6- 1 SUMMARY TABLE OF COMPARISON OF FGS AND IKT ................................................................... 113. IMAGE 3- 1 FGSMBC ONE-DAY AND SHORT-TERM RETREAT .......................................................................... 63 IMAGE 3- 2 THE VEGFEST ....................................................................................................................... 68. IMAGE 4- 1 FA-YI CHONG DE GENERAL AFFAIRS’ COLLECTED DATA OF MARCH ................................................... 77 IMAGE 4- 2 FA-YI CHONG DE’S TIMETABLE FOR ENGLISH CLASS ....................................................................... 78 IMAGE 4- 3 FA-YI CHONG DE’S FIVE-YEAR TRAINING CLASSES AND ATTENDANCE ................................................. 79 IMAGE 4- 4 THE PRAYER OF THANKS BEFORE A MEAL .................................................................................... 95 IMAGE 4- 5 CHONG DE NIGHT ACTIVITIES ................................................................................................... 95. 政治大. IMAGE 4- 6 BUDDHA JI’S REVELATION........................................................................................................ 98. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 5. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(10) Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Research Motivation and Background Macau's sovereignty is at the edge. People usually put Macau together with Hong Kong and or Taiwan when they discuss it. As a city, its culture and voice seem invisible, and is in a weak position, it’s commonly known that Macau was a Portuguese colony, but it might not know by many people how the development of religions and people’s religious life is in Macau. A two and a half hour flight that is the time people need to. 政治大 religious development within and outside Taiwan; they are not only continually 立 travel from Macau to Taiwan. A strait away, many scholars are researching on the. ‧ 國. 學. tracking and preserving their social culture but also interacting with other nations. As a Macau citizen, I choose to research religions in Macau and Taiwan, hoping that my. ‧. work will contribute to the field of religious studies as well as Taiwan and Macau’s. Nat. sit. y. religious development.. n. al. er. io. Many Catholic missionaries came and settled in Macau starting from 1563.. i n U. v. Therefore, at the end of the 17th century, the total population in Macau was 20500. Ch. engchi. and 90% of them were immigrants from China. At that time, 95% of the total population in Macau were Catholics.1 Since a massive population fled from China to Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan or other East Asian countries after 1949, Taiwan gained extra manpower and this manpower which led to an instantaneous growth of church members in the Catholic and Protestant church from around ten thousand to thirty. 1. 徐牧民神父，《耶穌會士於澳門開教四百週年》，頁 8。 6. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(11) thousand. As a result, the baptized population grew from 1.9% in 1956 to 4.5% in 1959. The growth rate of Christians was over 200% during this period.2 Even though Christianity in both Taiwan and Macau had experienced its heyday, today Christians only constitute approximately 8 percent (6.53% Protestants and 1.5% Catholics)3 and 4 to 7 percent of Taiwan and Macau’s population respectively.4 Why Taiwanese and Macau citizens converted to Christianity and changed their religious identity is an interesting question (In a later chapter, Iannaccone’s rational choice theory and the REST survey will help to explain this question). For the process of. 治政大 powers and Christianity modernization in China has been an impact of the Western 立 ‧ 國. 學. has been taken as a Christian-secular normative model for religions. Religions had to. take inner-structure rearrangements and take up a more active role in the public. ‧. spheres to remove the label of superstition and conform to Western expectations. sit. y. Nat. regarding Chinese religious practice and their social engagement. 5 Hence, it is. n. al. er. io. necessary that Chinese religions in Taiwan and Macau innovate their organizational. i n U. v. structure and ways of propagation to recruit members and face the challenge of. Ch. engchi. Christianity. Before I discuss the concept of glocal-modernization and Christianization of Chinese religions in Taiwan and Macau, let’s have an overview of Taiwan and Macau citizens’ religious belief:. 2. Taiwan Missionary Fellowship (Protestant), The Taiwan Christian Yearbook 1960, p. v. In the Taiwan government’s report, Catholics and Protestants compose 1.5% and 4.5% of the total population respectively, the Christians’ population that I write here combines 朱三才牧師 and the Taiwan government’s research data. 朱三才牧師，《2015 年台灣基督教會教勢報告》，頁 1。台灣社會變遷基本調查計畫第七期第一次調查計畫執行報告，頁 169。 4 Presbytrians has about 227,000 members and Catholics has about 300,000 members. Cheng-tian Kuo, Religion and Democracy in Taiwan, p. 7. 5 Vincent Goossaert, David A. Palmer, The Religious Question in Modern China, p. 74. 3. 7. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(12) Chart 1- 1 Overview of Taiwanese’ Religious Belief6 (unit: %). Religions. Numbers of believers 2005 (n=2146). 2010 (n=1895). 2015 (n=2034). Daoism. 13.5. 15.7. 16.6. Buddhism. 20.9. 21.7. 19.9. I-Kuan Tao. 1.9. 2.0. 1.5. Xuanyuan. 0. 0.1. 0. Folk religion. 41.4. 34.2. 35.5. Catholicism. 0.6. 1.0. 1.5. Protestantism. 4.1. 3.9. 4.5. 0. 0. 0.1. Islam Cih Huei Temple Others. 立. 0.3. 20.8. 19.9. 0. 0. 0.1. 學. Don’t know. 0.1. 16.8. ‧ 國. No religion. 0 治 0 政大 0.7 0.5. Data extracted from Taiwan Social Change Survey 2015.. ‧ y. Nat. sit. From the data above, it tells that folk religion has been dominant in Taiwan’s. n. al. er. io. society. The majority of the Taiwanese are believers of Chinese religions. Although. Ch. i n U. v. numbers of Christians had grown significantly before the lifting of martial law and. engchi. Christianity seems to be a strong competitor in the religious market, and it serves as the prototype of “religion”, its development in Taiwan goes downwards and has been slow. A similar situation is identifiable in Macau.. 6. 傳仰止，《台灣社會變遷基本調查計畫第七期第一次調查計畫執行報告》，頁 168。 8. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(13) Chart 1- 2 Overview of Macau Citizens’ Religious Belief in 1981 and 19917 (unit: %). Religions. Total. 1981 (n=222525). 1991 (n=355693). Catholicism. 7.8 (16455). 6.71 (23985). Protestant. 1.27 (2820). 1.74 (6205). Other Christian Denominations. 0.06 (123). Buddhism. 45 (100350). 16.8 (59669). Other religions. 0.4 (768). 13.9 (49529). Non-religious. 45.8 (102009). 60.8 (216305). The Resource comes from the population Census conducted by Macau DSEC in 1981 and 1991.8. 立. 政治大. Ten years after 1981, Catholicism slightly decreased while Protestantism had a. ‧ 國. 學. small growth. Even Buddhism that is supposed to be the most familiar religion to Macau citizens is reporting a significant drop of followers compared with other. ‧. religions. Most religions keep losing their followers, which is indicated by the sharp. y. Nat. er. io. sit. growth of a non-religious population. The percentage of non-religious population increased from 45.8 percent to 60.8 percent over these ten years. In 1991, over half. n. al. Ch. of the residents claim to be non-religious.. engchi. i n U. v. Chart 1- 3 Overview of Macau Citizens’ Religious Belief in 2005, 2007 and 2009 (unit: %). Religions. Household surveys 2005 (n=2060). 2007 (n=2058). 2009 (n=2019). Non-religious. 55.1. 57.0. 55.3. Catholicism. 4.9. 5.2. 4.2. Protestant. 3.2. 3.1. 4.3. 7. It’s a pity this is the last investigation about Macau citizens’ religious belief which was done by the Governemnt. The other two books 《澳門宗教報告》（2015）and《澳門宗教》（1994）do not provide statistic of different religions’ number of followers in Macau. More search about religious development in Macau should be done. 8 澳門統計暨普查局，〈人口普查〉，adopted 14 February 2018. 9. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(14) Buddhism & Daoism. 19.3. 17.1. 13.1. Folk Religions. 17.4. 17.4. 22.8. Others. 0.1. 0.3. 0.3. Household Survey Conducted by Victor Zheng and Po-san Wan and Published in 2010.9 Like Taiwan, most of the Macau citizens are immigrants from Guangdong province. Even though over 90% of Macau citizens claimed to be Christians at the end of the 17th century (Compared to Catholicism, Protestantism succeeded in recruiting new members. However, there’s not enough evidence to prove that the growth of. 政治大 Protestantism is due to some former Catholics that converted to Protestantism or that 立. ‧ 國. 學. new immigrants choose Protestantism rather than Catholicism), many of the local. citizens claim to be non-religious starting from the 20th century, and folk religions. ‧. become the second largest religious belief. As time changes, Christianity became the. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. minority in these two places.. 1.2 Literature Review. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. This paper aims to discuss whether the innovative changes of FoGuang Shan and I-Kuan Tao are the result of glocal-modernization or Christianization. Thus, the following works focus on the issue of modernization and globalization respectively. The modernization of religions started at the late Qing dynasty as a reaction to the Western’s encroachment. In Goossaert and Palmer’s book “The Religious Question in Modern China” and Paul R. Katz’s book “Religion in China and Its Modern Fate”, they analysis how Chinese elites and lay Buddhist followers propelled changes. 9. Victor Zheng, Po-san Wan, “Religious Beliefs and Life Experiences of Macao’s Residents”, p. 100. 10. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(15) to adapt to and thrive in the modern context. It was not merely the Western’s encroachment that pressured the Chinese elites, but also Christians were key players in the diffusion of progressive social ideals such as anti-foot-binding movement, opposing opium, and the selling of daughters. Officers and traditional elites were massively influenced by Western Christian culture, for the field of education had been dominated by Christianity. In Bellah’s “Epilogue: Religion and Progress in Modern Asia”, his viewpoint on modernization is “…modernization is an open-ended, ongoing process ...that Chinese. 治政 society and religions become ‘less’ Chinese but at the大 same time without losing the 立 ‧ 國. 學. ‘best’ of the indigenous traditions.” 10 In Bellah’s description, the reformation of. Chinese religions shows their ability to make depth inner-structure rearrangements. ‧. and their “learning capacity” to cope with modern society. What’s more, as Bellah. sit. y. Nat. points out that instead of choosing Christianity, reformation is usually a more. n. al. er. io. attractive and viable alternative for religions. Moreover, in Shi Chue-Ming’s paper. i n U. v. “Master Hsing Yun Model of ‘Humanistic Buddhism’: A Response to the Age of. Ch. engchi. ‘Globalization’ and its Related Problems”, she further discusses how FoGuang Shan (presented as FGS hereafter) responses to the modern society and achieves glocalmodernization under the leadership of Master Hsing Yun. Regarding the issue of Christianization, Weller, Goossaert and Palmer discuss how Christianity influences and leads to the changes in Chinese religions. In Goossaert and Palmer’s point of view, an essential vehicle for the adoption of the Christiansecular normative model is the national religious association. Religions reform. 10. Robert Bellah, “Epilogue: Religion and Progress in Modern Asia”, p. 170. 11. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(16) themselves in terms of clerical training, community organization, confessional identification and social engagement. The Christian-secular normative, rational model is so successful that some Buddhist temples organize Sunday Buddhist seminars for tonsured Buddhists and seminars for lay Buddhist followers. Thus, modernization took place, and Christianity serves as a normative model of a good religion.11During the process of glocal-modernization and or Christianization, some religions or missionary organizations dream of preaching and converting Europe and America, FGS and I-Kuan Tao are two good examples.12. 治政 Robert P. Weller noticed three important changes大 that occurred in the early 20 立. th. ‧ 國. 學. century that led Chinese religions tried to fit into the model of “religion”. First, the attempts to secularize – to remove religious aspects from economic, social and. ‧. political life. The second was the creation of the category of “religion”. The third was. sit. y. Nat. “the development of large institutionalized religious organizations intended to unify. n. al. er. io. diverse religious traditions into structures with which the state could easily interact. i n U. v. and which could distance themselves from more embedded and traditional practices –. Ch. engchi. ‘religionization’”. And these eventually developed into China’s five officially recognized religions.13. 11. To contrast with “Christian-secular normative model” which brings up by Goossaert and Palmer, Yao and Gombrich support that Buddhism under Taixu and Hsing Yun’s reformation has been “Christianized”. See Yu-Shuang Yao and Richard Gombrich, “Christianity as Model and Analogue in the Formation of the ‘Humanistic’ Buddhism of Taixu and Hsing Yun”, pp. 205 – 237. 12 Vincent Goossaert, David A. Palmer, The Religious Question in Modern China, pp.70, 72, 74. 康豹，《中國宗教及其現代命運》，頁 101 – 138。 Joseph B. Tamney, Linda Hsueh-ling Chiang, Modernization, Globalization, and Confucianism in Chinese Societies, 2002. Don A.Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu’s Refomrs, 2001. 13 Robert P. Weller, “Global Religious Changes and Civil Life in Two Chinese Societies: A Comparison of Jiangsu and Taiwan”, p. 15. 12. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(17) For the discussion on whether FGS adopts glocal-modernization or Christianization, I rely on scholars and master students’ research. Many scholars (Stuart Chandler, Richard Madsen and Jia Jinghua) and graduate students (Yu Xue and Lin mei-ling) research on FGS’s expansion since FGS is one of the five largest leading Buddhist organizations in Taiwan14. Some of them focus on FGS’ actualization of the idea “Buddhism for the human realm” which eyes on the sentient beings living in this world here and now, how FGS innovates and re-creates elements and rituals in Buddhism to make this ancient wisdom and teaching re-vitalized and to achieve. 治政大 Jia-Jane, Chen Hsin-Chih modernization and globalization. And some of them (Shuai 立 ‧ 國. 學. and Chang Chia-Hao) compare FGS with other leading Buddhist organizations. By living almost two years (1996 to 1998) at the FoGuang headquarter in Kaohsiung, Dr Stuart. ‧. Chandler gathers lots of first-hand fieldwork materials and published his book. sit. y. Nat. “Establishing a pure land on Earth the Foguang Buddhist Perspective on. n. al. er. io. modernization and globalization”15 in 2004. As the book’s name puts it, Dr Stuart’s. i n U. v. work focuses on analyzing FGS’ modernization and globalization in terms of how FGS. Ch. engchi. puts “Humanistic Buddhism” into practice through education. FGS has been devoting many resources on establishing educational institutions and spreading their true dharma. Now FGS’ educational institutions cover all levels which range from kindergarten to graduate school. Dr Stuart’s work does not purely discuss the good sides of FGS but also provides a critique from his observation, for he was permitted to attend meeting and planning sessions to which normally only monastics are invited. 14. The other four influential Buddhist organizations in Taiwan are: Tzu Chi, Chung Tai Chan Monastery, Dharma Drum Mountain and Ling Jiou Mountain Buddhist Society. 15 Stuart Chandler, Establishing a Pure Land on Earth the Foguang Buddhist Perspective on Modernization and Globalization, 2004. 13. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(18) In these meetings, he got to know some internal discussions such as whether it is necessary to develop a highly educated sangha for elevating Buddhism’s status, and how FGS can find new ways to fund its ambitious projects under such tightening fiscal conditions while Taiwan’s economy has slowed.16 Furthermore, the innovation of FGS also entails the elements of democracy, religious followers’ democratic experience within a religious organization will transform their society.17 Seeing that there is much research on “Humanistic Buddhism” and Buddhism’s growth in Taiwan, a few studies, however, focus on the changes of rituals of Chinese. 治政大 Buddhism in Taiwan and some leading Buddhist organizations’ current preaching 立 ‧ 國. 學. strategies. Yu Xue18 and Shuai Jia-Jane, Chen Hsin-Chih and Chang Chia-Hao’s19work focus respectively on FGS’ re-creation of rituals and how Buddhism in Taiwan makes. ‧. use of the internet as “religion online” or “online religion” to get contact with the mass.. sit. y. Nat. Although offering rituals for the dead can generate high income for the sangha and. n. al. er. io. providing the material foundation for the development of Buddhism in Chinese. i n U. v. society. However, this may lead to the corruption of those monks and the sangha and. Ch. engchi. make them lack in spirituality at the same time. In Yu Xue’s case study, Master Hsing Yun (星雲 1927 – ) does not attempt to do away the rituals for the dead but to re-. 16. Ibid, pp. 123, 139. One can refer to Richard Madsen and Cheng-tian Kuo’s publications on religions in Taiwan and democracy. Under the governance of Master Hsing Yun, he makes a variety of changes and tries to democratize a Buddhist organization’s ruling style. For example, the abbot is elected through an open election, there are guidelines that give instructions of how a monk or nun can be promoted and how much proportion of monthly wage and donation monks and nuns can get. Cheng-tian Kuo, Religion and Democracy in Taiwan, 2008. Richard Madsen, Democracy’s Dharma Religious Renaissance and Political Development in Taiwan, 2007. 18 Xue Yu, “Re-creation of Rituals in Humanistic Buddhism a Case Study of FGS”. 19 Jia-Jane Shuai 帥嘉珍, Hsin-Chih Chen 陳杏枝, Chia-Hao Chang 張嘉豪, 〈台灣佛教網站之座會網絡與呈現初探〉，頁 79 – 100。 17. 14. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(19) create these rituals based on the old ones and reinvent specific rituals for the living which are known as The Etiquettes and Rules (yizhi 儀制) that cover all aspects of life at different ages. Apart from the preaching in real life, online religion has become a common phenomenon. In Shuai Jia-Jane, Chen Hsin-Chih and Chang Chia-Hao’s article, the statistic which provided by Netvalue20, an internet polling company shows that Taiwanese have the highest click rate of religion-related websites (including geomancy and fortune telling websites) within South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Their research covers 25 Buddhist websites wherein FGS’ online service consists of. 治政大 web radio, and television praying, blog, Facebook, MP3 download, online videos, 立 ‧ 國. 學. programs.. IKT is another religious organization that is discussed in this thesis. Various books. ‧. and journals discuss IKT from different perspectives. Among all these publications,. sit. y. Nat. Song Guang-Yu’s book “The Heavenly Way Transmits the Light” is the first and. n. al. er. io. foremost book-length publication about IKT. 21 In this book, Song introduces the. i n U. v. history and lineage of IKT, he unveiled the “secret” of IKT – the three treasures, its. Ch. engchi. internal situation and presents a thorough introduction of the IKT branches. As a religion originates in China, IKT was ruthlessly suppressed by the Qing dynasty, the republican government, the Japanese occupation force, the communist regime, and the KMT government in Taiwan before 1987.22 IKT was first banned by the republican government in Nanjing in 1946 and was forbidden in 1949 after the KMT government retreated to Taiwan for two years. As a syncretic religion which combines 20. The latest statistic about Taiwanese online religion survey was released in 2002, since Netvalue this company withdrew from the Asia market at 25th November, 2002. 21 宋光宇，《天道傳燈》。 22 Ibid, p. 39. 15. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(20) Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity, and Islam into one, IKT has about 1,200,000 members in Taiwan23. Among many branches in IKT, Fa-Yi Chong De is one of the largest branches. It runs the most successful mess in Taiwan which targets university students, and it’s the only branch that has set a Dao centre in Macau. In Li Hui-Chuan’s master thesis,24 she stresses on the mess that runs by Fa-Yi Chong De and its relationship with the preaching of the Dao 道 . Additionally, Lo LiangPing’s25work focuses on the social function of Fa-Yi Chong De’s charity work and its liberal arts education in Taiwan. The previous listed book and journals together with Chen Jinguo’s. 26. 治政大in Macau gives an overview article, which is about IKT’s development 立. ‧ 國. 學. of Fa-Yi Chong De’s hard work on promoting the Dao.. All of the above-stated research only focuses on one religion, and no study. ‧. utilizes a comparative perspective on the expansion strategies, reformation, and. sit. y. Nat. innovation of FGS and IKT. Some existing works bring up the idea that Chinese religions. n. al. er. io. Christianized themselves. But these research cannot explain whether Christianity is. i n U. v. successful or not as it is a normative model of religion. Therefore, with an assumption. Ch. engchi. that Chinese religions adopt glocal-modernization instead of Christianization, FGS and Fa-Yi Chong De of IKT are chosen as two examples. With a focus on their doctrines, rituals, organizational structure, and proselytizing strategies, I will examine the innovation that they take to achieve glocal-modernization.. 23 24 25 26. Cheng-tian Kuo, Religion and Democracy in Taiwan, pp. 7, 66. 李慧娟，〈一貫道發一祟德道場學生道團之研究 – 以台北學界伙食團與宣教關係為例〉。羅涼萍，〈一貫道「發一崇德」慈善文教事業之社會功能研究〉。陳進國，〈一貫道在澳門的傳播與發展 – 以發一崇德的活動為例〉，頁 173 – 188。 16. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(21) 1.3 Research Methodology To observe and compare FGS and Fa-Yi Chong De’s glocal-modernization and or Christianization. I utilize three methods: document analysis, comparison, and field research. To collect first-hand materials, I visited both Taiwan and Macau’s IKT Buddha hall. I have attended an IKT’s two-day dharma assembly in Taiwan on 6, 7th October 2018, and the Chong De Night which was held on 19th December 2019 by NCCU’s Chong De Confucian study club. Moreover, I visited a Fa-Yi Chong De Buddha Hall in Macau on 6th September 2018 to gather information on how their development is. In. 政治大. addition to participating in IKT’s activity, I also conducted an informal and formal. 立. interview with IKT members and Master Jiao Ren in FGS Macau Buddhist Center. For. ‧ 國. 學. second-hand materials, I will use publications such as journal articles, thesis,. ‧. newspaper, government’s research and statistic, FGS and Fa-Yi Chong De (I-Kuan. n. al. er. io. sit. y. Nat. Tao)’s website and publications (books, shanshu, newspapers and magazines).. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 17. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(22) Chapter 2. Theoretical Framework Before I examine whether FGS and IKT’s innovation is a process of glocalmodernization or Christianization, I shall first define the two terms Christianization and glocal-modernization. Thus, I will divide this chapter into three sections. In the first section, I will first explain the concept of Christianization. Next, I will introduce a theory of glocal-modernization (2.2) and define globalization, modernization and localization, after explaining Christianization and providing a theory of glocal-. 政治大 environment in contemporary Taiwan and Macau so that we can look at the bigger 立. modernization. The third section will concentrate on the political and religious. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. picture of Taiwan and Macau’s religious environment.. 2.1 A Theory of Christianization. sit. y. Nat. In the 19th century, Chinese political and intellectual leaders had been extremely. n. al. er. io. sensitive to Western’s judgments and analyses regarding Chinese religions.27 During. v. that period, when Chinese elites and the Chinese society were facing a national crisis. Ch. engchi. i n U. and the problem of modernity, Christianity was viewed as an indicator of a modern and advanced religion. Although Goossaert and Palmer use the term “Christiansecular normative model”28 and Weller uses the term “religionization”29, these two terms both mean that Christianity is taken as the prototype of religion. Under the influence of Western Christianity culture, the Christianization of Chinese religion primarily reflects on (a) the state-religion relation, (b) Christianity. 27. Vincent Goossaert, David A. Palmer, The Religious Question in Modern China, p. 73. Ibid, p. 74. 29 Robert P. Weller, “Global Religious Changes and Civeil Life in Two Chinese Societies: A Comparison of Jiangsu and Taiwan”, p. 14. 28. 18. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(23) serves as the prototype of religion, and people assess Chinese religions through this “lens” of religion and (c) Chinese religions’ reform on their institutional structure, clerical training, community organizations and social engagement. On the state-religion relation aspect, the state provides legal status to religions and allows them to establish organizations of clerics and social welfare, temples and academics.30 In this way, the state could easily interact with different religions. Both Taiwan and Macau Government adopt the religion-related policies of Western nationstates, putting religions at an either “legal” or “illegal” status . Religious organizations. 治政大 department and follow in Taiwan and Macau have to register in a related government 立 ‧ 國. 學. certain rules. These rules include religious land and building, religion and education and religion and medicine etc. To compare these two places, Taiwan has a more. ‧. complex religious legal system than Macau. (See 2.3, a brief introduction of Taiwan. sit. y. Nat. and Macau). n. al. er. io. Any discussion on whether Christianity serves as the prototype of religion, leads. i n U. v. to an analysis of religions through its classics and doctrines. While Buddhism has its. Ch. engchi. own sets of classics and tenets and IKT tactfully includes all five major religions’ classics, Daoism encountered the challenge of what it teaches and was reshaped based on its tenets and its classics. Consequently, the elements that were recognized as appropriate by the state became the core of modern Daoism, while the others were excluded, deprecated and even destroyed.31 With an attempt to make Daoism fulfil the framework of religion and keep up with modernization, some Daoist temples in. 30 31. Shu-wei Hsieh, “Daoism and Nationalism in Modern and Contemporary China”, p. 257. Ibid, p. 257. 19. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(24) Taiwan (the Zhinan temple and Dalongdong Baoan temple) and Macau (the Daoist Association) organizes courses which teach Daoist classics. In the process of Christianization or religionization, some elements in Chinese religion have been watered down, classified as part of the “cultural heritage” or labelled as superstition (mixin 迷信).32 Under the influence of Christianity, Chinese religions innovative their institutional structure, clerical training, community organizations and social engagement. While most Buddhist groups, especially FGS under the leadership of. 治政大 structure and a leading Master Hsing Yun, have a more concentrate organizational 立 ‧ 國. 學. figure, whereas the organizational structure of Daoism and folk religions are less concrete. Not being counted into the five major religions, the syncretic religion IKT has. ‧. a clear vertical structure as well. Both FGS and IKT set up a set of promotion guidelines. sit. y. Nat. in which lay followers are also included. Lay followers are empowered to participate. n. al. er. io. in different community organization, and they usually work as volunteers.. i n U. v. In early periods of Taiwan (before the 19th century) and Macau (16th to 19th. Ch. engchi. centuries), Christianity dominated the field of education, and it introduced Western medicine. Until the 19th century, Chinese religions start to establish Academies and schools in the modern education system to improve the clerics’ educational level and to provide an educational opportunity for people. Four of the very influential Buddhist organizations and IKT have established educational institutions on different levels (Tzu Chi: 2 universities and 2 secondary schools33; FGS: 4 universities and 6 Non-tertiary. 32 33. Ibid, p. 257. 慈濟，〈慈濟全球資訊網持慈濟〉，adopted 29 May 2019. 20. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(25) educational institutions34; Chung Tai Chan Monastery: 1 high school and 1 elementary school35; Dharma Drum Mountain: 3 tertiary educational institutions36; IKT: 2 tertiary educational institutions 37 ). Even Daoist temples (Zhinan temple and Dalongdong Baoan Temple established a Daoist college respectively) set up a college for fitting in the religion framework, adopting modernization and changing the public’s stereotype that Daoists are less educated. Besides educational institutions, Chinese religions found hospitals or clinics as well. The uprising of Tzu Chi is because of the hospital that it sets up in Hualian in 1986, and it provides disaster relief all over the world. FGS,. 治政大 clinics in the early days and another influential Buddhist organization, provides mobile 立 ‧ 國. 學. hospice-care. While Chinese religions in Taiwan actively engage in the field of education and medical service, there’s only one Buddhist Association in Macau that. ‧. provides 30 free clinic quotas a day regularly.. sit. y. Nat. Christianity is the first religion to develop student fellowships within schools. It. n. al. er. io. sponsors camps as a mean to attract young people. Inspired by Christianity, Chinese. i n U. v. religions, particularly FGS and IKT, organize a summer camp for students to propagate. Ch. engchi. their faith. While FGS organizes one-month spiritual retreat and summer camp for students in Taiwan and Macau (See Image 3 – 2), Fa-Yi Chong De of IKT runs the most successful mess, and its mess groups for college students cover close to fifty tertiary educational institutions in Taipei (See Chart 4 – 9).. 34 35 36 37. 佛光山，〈佛光山全球資訊網〉，adopted 29 May 2019. 中台山佛教基金會，〈中台世界 – 教育體系〉，adopted 29 May 2019. 法鼓山，〈法鼓山全球資訊 – 大學院教育〉，adopted 29 May 2019. 一貫道，〈崇德學院〉，adopted 29 May 2019. 一貫道，〈天皇學院〉，adopted 29 May 2019. 21. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(26) Even though Christianity experienced its heyday in the early period of Taiwan (pre – 1949 and 1949 - 1960) and Macau (from 16th to 19th centuries), and it dominated the fields of social welfare and education. Unlike Taiwan, the new religious movement and thriving of Chinese religions do not happen in Macau. The scale of religions' social engagement and religious goods provided by Chinese religions in Macau cannot compare with those in Taiwan. Most of the Chinese religions in Macau do not use Christianity as a reference to reform and innovate themselves, only the FGS and IKT branches have introduced the Christianized or reformation elements that they inherit. 治政大 from their headquarters in Taiwan. 立 ‧ 國. 學. 2.2 A Theory of Glocal-modernization The term “Glocal-modernization”. 38. looks lengthy, however, for a religion. ‧. to become a global one, localization is unavoidable. With the development of. y. Nat. io. sit. communication and transportation technology (technological development is one of. er. the five basic components of the modernization process), modern technology. al. n. v i n becomes a religion’s most excellent power. Thus, globalization, C hglocalization assistant engchi U. localization and modernization have a reciprocal relationship. In the following, I will define these three terms in order. As the World Health Organization states that globalization is “the increased interconnectedness and interdependence of people and countries, is generally understood to include two inter-related elements: the opening of international borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and the. 38. The prefix “glocal” combines the two words “globalization” and “localization” .The concept of “glocalization” was raised by R. Robertson in 1994. 22. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(27) changes in institutions and policies at national and international levels that facilitate or promote such flows.”39 Buddhism is one of the religions that has a long and deeply shared history with globalization. Not only Buddhism but also other religions, the spread and development of religion in early periods was because of the increasing urbanization and trade, a religion’s religious teacher, teachings and texts first found ways along trade routes.40 A religion must plant its seed in every nation to become a global religion, and not just among emigrants from that religions’ countries, but among the general populace. 41 Both FGS and IKT have set up branches over five. 治政大as well. continents, and they undertake foreign missionary work 立 ‧ 國. 學. Modernization is a process with no definitive list of characteristics, and it can be. viewed using long or short time frames. As in Tamney and Chiang Hsueh-Ling’s book,. ‧. they state that “modernization means the process of change from small, traditional. sit. y. Nat. society to the contemporary world.” 42 In the religious sphere, starting from the. n. al. er. io. twentieth century, the focus of modernization has shifted from the intellectuals. i n U. v. instruct to the religious and educational reform to religions take up the initiative to. Ch. engchi. reform and innovate themselves. The modernization of Chinese religions in Chinese rhetoric worldview, as Robert Bellah 43 pointed out, shall be interpreted as “less Chinese” but at the same time without losing the ‘best’ of its indigenous tradition. In Tamney and Linda Chiang Hsueh-Ling’s perspective, the modernization theory. 39. World Health Organization, “Globalization”, adopted 1 June 2019. Peter D. Hershock, Squaring Freedom with Equity: Challenging the Karma of the Globalization of Choice, p. 3. 41 Stuart Chandler, “Spreading Buddha’s Light: The Internationalization of Foguang Shan”, p. 171. 42 Joseph B. Tamney and Linda Hsueh-Ling Chiang, Modernization, Globalization, and Confucianism in Chinese Societies, p. 7. 43 Bellah Robert, “Epilogue: Religion and Progress in Modern Asia”, p. 170. 40. 23. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(28) predicts that religions are more likely to be successful to the extent that they adjust to increasing technological development, social size, structural differentiation, cultural fragmentation, and individuation. 44 The modernization of a religion can manifest on a religion’s organizational structure, doctrine, rituals and propagation strategies. Moreover, Tamney and Chiang Hsueh-Ling states that the fundamental change of religions is the new importance of the salvation of individuals.45 While in Buddhism, an individual has to cultivate himself/herself to reach enlightenment, IKT promotes immediate salvation after a person becomes its full member.. 治政大 of making a product or In the Cambridge Dictionary, localization is a process 立 ‧ 國. 學. service more suitable for a particular country, area, etc. When a religion propagates overseas, a certain degree of adaptation of the local culture must occur. The most. ‧. explicit adaptation is temple architecture. The language of propagation and means of. sit. y. Nat. proselytizing are essential changes as well. For instance, IKT may not hang images of. n. al. er. io. divinity, and just place three lamps and an eight trigramas furnace on its altar46; FGS. i n U. v. and IKT translate its classics and teaching in the language of the misson field; in. Ch. engchi. Western context, meditation is a mean to outread newcomers interested in Buddhism, and FGS emphazises less on the recitation of Amitabha.47 Therefore, glocal-modernization means a religion’s spread and development in another cultural context. During this process, a religion makes adjustments to better fit in the local context, and use versatile modernized tools and organizes forms of. 44. Joseph B. Tamney and Linda Hsueh-Ling Chiang, Modernization, Globalization, and Confucianism in Chinese Societies, p. 8. 45 Ibid, p. 8. 46 楊弘任，〈綜攝與轉譯：一貫道在英國的行動者網絡分析〉，頁 3。 47 王彬，〈佛教國際化進程中的佛光山「佛教本土化」實踐〉，頁 247, 248。 24. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(29) activities to help its propagation work during the process. After defining these three terms, I will provide a theory of glocal-modernization in chart format. In the following, it is a summary table of a religion’s glocal-modernization changes on its organizational structure, doctrine, rituals and propagation strategies. I will give detail discussions on these four aspects about FGS and IKT in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4.. Chart 2- 1 Comparison of Traditional and Glocal-modernizational Religions.. Glocal-modernizational 政治大 Religions. Traditional. Religious leader has more. frequent and direct contact. frequent and direct contact. with believers.. with believers.. privileges. particular. for. were -. Nat. a religion’s organizational. structure.. n. al. -. Ch. engchi. Modifying doctrines to its. iv n U - Being able to respond to. existing environments in order to survive.. organizational. sit. religion’s. io. Laities were not included in structure.. Doctrine. Laities are included in a. er. -. internal affairs.. religious. elites.. Laities could take part in. y. Some. ‧. -. Religious leader had less -. 學. Structure. 立. -. ‧ 國. Organizational. religious pluralism. -. Using. uncomplicated. terminologies. -. Emphasizing doctrines. some that. are. acceptable to the local people. Rituals. -. Having rituals that help -. Having rituals that help. people. people. uncertainties. to. face and. difficulties.. life. uncertainties. to. face and. life. difficulties.. 25. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(30) -. Propagation. -. Having rituals that link up -. Having rituals that link up. people and the religion. people and the religion. itself.. itself.. Using. Strategies -. or -. Using more efficient and. Presswork.. widespread social media.48. Employing less efficient -. Educating local religious. proselytizing. professionals and laities.. having -. Woodblock. an. tools impact. and on -. Holding activities that can. limited regions.. cope with modern life and. Proselytizing work mainly. local culture.. relies on religious leaders -. Proselytizing in the local. language. 政治大. and or elites.. 立. ‧. ‧ 國. 學. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. 48. For further reading, one can refer to: Gregory Price Grieve and Daniel Veidlinger, Buddhism, the Internet, and Digital Media: the Pixel in the Lotus. 26. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(31) 2.3 Political and Religious Environment in Contemporary Taiwan and Macau The living space and religious freedom of religions in any nation or area reflect the relationship between religions and governmental power. The attitude and policies of any government not only can affect people who are religious believers but also influence others’ mindset and their presuppositions or expectations towards religions and ultimately generate an impact on them. To exist in a favourable ecology is vital to a religion’s development. In this case, religions will be able to recruit more new members and may receive financial support from the government.. 政治大. Even though the religious environment in Taiwan and Macau is an open religious. 立. market, the statistic of people’s religious belief shows that this is not a sufficient factor. ‧ 國. 學. for religions to compete with each other. Although Christianity was in an. ‧. advantageous situation, people tend to convert to other Chinese religions that they. sit. y. Nat. are familiar with or become non-religious as time changes.. n. al. er. io. Religious Environment in Taiwan. i n U. v. The KMT government took over Taiwan in 1945, after that the religion–state. Ch. engchi. relationship divided into three periods: 1945 to 1949, after the civil war and four years before the practice of martial law; 1949 to 1987, martial law that lasted for thirtyeight years; 1987 to present day, post-martial law. The first forty years of Taiwan ruling by the Nationalist Party was the “White Terror” period. Article 11 of the martial law states that “Any religious activities that disturb the public security are under restriction and prohibition”. 49 Because of the Nationalists’ suppression of Communist insurgents, there were as many as 140,000. 49. Cheng-tian Kuo, Religion and Democracy in Taiwan, p. 11. 27. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(32) individuals who were perceived to threaten the Nationalist ideology. As a result, they were imprisoned, tortured or worse.50 The Nationalist party restricted some religious leaders from travelling abroad, including President Chiang Kai-shek’s 蔣介石 court pastor Rev. Zhou Lian-hua 周連華 and put more severe offenders in jail without the protection of due process of law.51 Hsing Yun, the founder of FGS and a Buddhist master, was suspected of being a communist’s spy and sentenced to jail for several weeks. IKT originated in China had been under political suppression by the Qing dynasty, the republican government, the Japanese occupation force, the communist. 治政大and was labelled as an “evil regime, and the KMT government in Taiwan before 1987 立 ‧ 國. 學. cult” (xiejiao 邪教).. Taiwan’s political and religious environment underwent a gradual liberalization. ‧. in the 1980s. The United States derecognized Taiwan in 1978, and Taiwan’s supreme. sit. y. Nat. leader’s health was deteriorating, the martial law lifted in 1987. The revised law on. n. al. er. io. the Organization of Civic Groups (renmin tuanti zuzhifa 人民團體自治法) and the. i n U. v. Law on Assembly and Parade (jihui youxingfa 集會遊行法 ) which guarantee. Ch. engchi. Taiwanese the same freedom of association and movement as citizens in other democratic countries led the prosperity of “new religions”, and religious freedom was maximized.52 In addition to these two laws, Taiwan Government sets up regulations on religious land and building, religion and education, religion and medicine and religion and funeral which is more detail than Macau’s religious law.53. 50. 蘇慕理，〈基督教宣教士和台灣國民政府早期的政治意圖〉，頁 152。 Cheng-tian Kuo, Religion and Democracy in Taiwan, p. 11. 52 Ibid, p. 12. 53 Taiwan’s religious legal system is more detailed than Macau’s, one can refer to Qian Tiezheng’s M.A. thesis: “A Comparative Study of Taiwan Religious Legal System and Japan Religious Corporations Act Registration, Real Property Regulation and Financual System”. 51. 28. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(33) Today, religions in Taiwan do not have to worry about political suppression. On the contrary, legislation candidates seek to gain support from these influential religious groups if possible, as FGS has about 1,000,000 members and IKT has around 1,200,000 members in Taiwan.54. Religious Environment in Macau While the policies and strategies of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) on religious issues aim to eliminate religions in China in the long run55, Macau enjoys a. 政治大. semi-free religious environment (I say semi-free here because the Macau Basic Law. 立. guarantees residents’ religious freedom. However, the pro-China power takes the. ‧ 國. 學. upper hand since the 12-3 incident in 1966. There’s some hidden culture or norms in. ‧. the religious sphere for sure.) or one could say religions in Macau enjoy maximum. sit. y. Nat. freedom by looking at the religious freedom policies solely. Since Catholicism is the. io. al. er. national religion of Portugal, and Portugal has been trying to keep a mild relationship. n. with China, before the handover of Macau in 1999, the Sino-Portuguese formed a. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. consensus regarding the preservation of Portuguese’s language, culture, and religion. Therefore, the Portuguese took a pro-China political stance before and after Macau’s handover, and the unique sociopolitical factors of Macau makes China at ease about. 54. Ibid, p. 7. In “Guan yo wo guo she hui zhu yi shi qi zong jiao wen ti de ji ben guan dian he ji ben zheng ce” 關於我國社會主義時期宗教問題的基本觀點和基本政策 (Document No.19) which was published by the Chinese Government in 1982. Chinese Government has admitted that “to eliminate religions in China in the long run” this aim is unrealistic, and it starts to consider religions as a tool to assist China’s development, and religions can help to provide social welfares.. 55. 29. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(34) the religious freedom that Macau’s now having.56 The Macau Basic Law Article34, 128, and 134 state that:. <Article 34> Macao residents shall have freedom of conscience. Macao residents shall have freedom of religious belief and freedom to preach, conduct and participate in religious activities in public.. <Article 128> The Government of the Macao Special Administrative Region, consistent. 治政大 in the internal affairs of with the principle of religious freedom, shall not interfere 立 ‧ 國. 學. religious organizations or in the efforts of religious organizations and believers in. Macao to maintain and develop relations with their counterparts outside Macao, or. ‧. restrict religious activities which do not contravene the laws of the Region. Religious. sit. y. Nat. organizations may run seminaries and other schools, hospitals and welfare institutions. n. al. er. io. and to provide other social services. Schools run by religious organizations may. i n U. v. continue to provide religious education, including courses in religion. Religious. Ch. engchi. organizations shall enjoy the rights to acquire, use, dispose of and inherit property and the right to receive donations. The law protects residents' property rights and interests.. <Article 134> Non-governmental organizations in fields such as education, science, technology, culture, news media, publication, sports, recreation, the professions, medicine and health, labour, women, youth, returned overseas nationals, social. 56. Beatrice Leung, “The Portuguese Appeasement Policy in Macau’s Church and State Relations”, pp. 383, 385. 30. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(35) welfare and social work, as well as religious organizations in the Macao Special Administrative Region, may maintain and develop relations with their counterparts in foreign countries and regions and with relevant international organizations. They may, as required, use the name "Macao, China" in the related activities.57. Although people in Taiwan and Macau enjoy religious freedom, and the immigrants of these two places are mainly from China’s coastal provinces of Fujian and Guangdong, their demand towards religions as “goods” are very different. New. 治政大it is in Taiwan. religious movements in Macau are not as prosperous as 立 ‧ 國. 學. According to the Ministry of Interior, in the early 1960s, the numbers of temples. in Taiwan was estimated to be around 3600, and the number of churches was about. ‧. 1,500. During the 1970s, there was a considerable growth in the number of temples,. sit. y. Nat. and by 1980, the number was over 6,000, and the number of churches also doubled. n. al. er. io. during the same period.58 The remarkable growth of temples and churches in Taiwan. i n U. v. reflect people’s religious demand and the religious market’s supply. While only 15.4%. Ch. engchi. of the Taiwanese population claim to be unaffiliated to any religion,59 over half of the Macau residents claim to be non-religious (55.3%) in a 2009’s household survey.60Not only did half of the population claimed to be non-religious, but the number of churches and temples in Macau also did not grow after 1996. Within the twenty churches and over forty temples, the most recent church constructed in 1996 and. 57. 澳門特別行政區基本法，“The Basic Law of the Macao Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China”, adopted 17 February 2018. 58 Yen-zen Tsai, Religious Experience in Contemporary Taiwan and China, p. 38. 59 Yen-zen Tsai, Religious Experience in Contemporary Taiwan and China, p. 19. 60 Victor Zheng, Po-san Wan, “Religious Beliefs and Life Experiences of Macao’s Residents”, p. 100. 31. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(36) there is no newly built temple. The low demand for religions leads to a decline or stagnation of religions in Macau. In “Religious Experience in Contemporary Taiwan and China” which is edited by Tsai Yen-zen, the religious experience survey in Taiwan (REST) finds out that those Taiwanese who claimed to have had no religious affiliation in the past, if they decide to convert to a religion, they tend to become followers of traditional Chinese religions.61This finding may help to explain why only Buddhism and Daoism (13.1%) and Folk religions (22.8%) have considerably more followers than Christianity (Catholicism 4.2%, Protestantism 4.3%). 62 One could assume that the. 治政大 and people would change identity for those who claimed to be non-religious is fluid 立 ‧ 國. 學. their religious identity as they go through different stages of life and make choice base on their accumulated religious capital.. ‧. n. er. io. sit. y. Nat. al. 61 62. Ch. engchi. i n U. v. Yen-zen Tsai, Religious Experience in Contemporary Taiwan and China, p. 19. Victor Zheng, Po-san Wan, “Religious Beliefs and Life Experiences of Macao’s Residents”, p. 100. 32. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(37) Chapter 3. Glocal-modernization of FGS in Taiwan and Macau Master Hsing Yun is the founder of FGS. Although he only encountered Ven. Taixu in person once, he agrees with Taixu’s innovative thoughts towards Buddhism. The first section of this chapter will talk about how Ven. Taixu set the tone of Buddhist reformation. After a short review of how Ven. Taixu influenced Master Hsing Yun, the following sections (from 3.2 to 3.5) will focus on the four aspects that Master Hsing Yun thinks modernized Buddhism should cover, and FGS’ development, its. 政治大 established FGS in 1967. organizational structure, doctrine and rituals and its proselytizing strategies in Taiwan. Since Master Hsing Yun. 立. and made Taiwan its. ‧ 國. 學. headquarter, FGS started to propagate the Buddhist dharma in other nations in 1976, and it set up its first Buddhist centre (FGSMBC) in Macau in 1995. Being limited by the. ‧. size of Macau’s religious market and the social environment (Macau is smaller than. Nat. sit. y. the Neihu District in Taipei City, and over 60% of the residents’ work requires them to. n. al. er. io. work in shifts), FGS’ propagation and outreach in social work in Macau are not as. i n U. v. versatile as in Taiwan. FGS in Macau has a slow but steady growth, and sections 3.6 to. Ch. engchi. 3.8 will concentrate on its development, organizational structure, and proselytizing strategies in Macau.. 3.1 From Ven. Taixu to Master Hsing Yun During Taixu’s (1890 – 1947) lifetime, Chinese people experienced the end of dynastic rule and the beginning of the Republican Era. In parallel with the political revolution and the recreation of a “new people”, Taixu called for a “Buddhist revolution” and the creation of “new monks”. With his great envision to modernize 33. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(38) Chinese Buddhism, Taixu never used “new” in any popular sense of the term (refers to the time of the early Republican Era and the Chinese intellectuals at that time, i.e., to mean “western”, “foreign” or “anti-traditional”). Instead, he claimed, a reformer always intended “new” in the sense of the true, original essence of Chinese Buddhism, which needs to be rediscovered.63 In Taixu’s twenties, he had affirmed why Buddhism failed to remain a vital force in modern China: it was due to the sangha’s focus on otherworldliness and the tendency of Buddhists to hold onto the externals of their religion without understanding its essence. Ven. Taixu believed that a modern form of. 治政大 of China but also to the Buddhism would be the key not only to the salvation 立 ‧ 國. 學. emergence of a just and peaceful global civilization. He introduced a reorganization of. the sangha through a large structure: education, economic reforms, called for closer. ‧. ties between the monastic and lay communities and proposed a new measure of. sit. y. Nat. cooperation in global mission.. n. al. er. io. Taixu had always thought about how he could reform Chinese Buddhism, and he. i n U. v. had put his thoughts into practice, for example, he set up Japanese, Bali and Sanskrit. Ch. engchi. Buddhist Academies, Buddhist Academies for women, encouraged his lay followers to provide medical care for the poor. Although endeavours and the Chinese situation at that time might not always be advantageous and he had had doubts about Buddhism’s ability to be an effective and universal healing force, he confidently proclaimed that Buddhism would be an Asian gift to the rest of the world.64. 63 64. Don A. Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu’s Reforms, p. 89. Ibid, pp. 89 – 90. 34. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(39) The founding of the Bodhi society in Shanghai, in August 1918 constituted the beginning of Taixu’s new Buddhist movement. To revitalize Buddhism in the twentieth century through educational modernization, social service, and international cooperation, Taixu had set up different monastic educational institutions. He founded and directed other monastic schools, such as the Wuchang Buddhist Institute in 1922, the seminary in Beijing at the Bolin Si which specialized in English-language studies, functioned only for the 1930 – 1931 academic year.65Taixu’s important South Fujian Seminary in Xiamen which specialized in Japanese-language study functioned from. 治政大specialized in Tibetan studies 1925 to 1939. His seminary in Chongqing, Sichuan which 立 ‧ 國. 學. was in operation from 1932 to 1949. And in Xian, Shannxi, the academy that he established at Daxingshan Si, specializing in Pali studies, functioned for only a short. ‧. period after its founding in 1945.66. sit. y. Nat. Taixu with his seminarians and lay supporters actively participated in social. n. al. er. io. service, his students would usher people in need for health care to his lay disciples. i n U. v. who provided free treatment and medicine, and Taixu had helped his two disciples to. Ch. engchi. establish a modern school for children and a welfare program for the diseased, destitute and jobless. Being inspired by Taixu’s reform and lectures, lay devotees established the Right Faith Buddhist Society of Hankou, which claimed a membership of thirty thousand by 1933. It became one of the most socially active lay Buddhist associations in China. In accord with Taixu’s emphasis on social responsibility, the society operated a clinic that provided freed medical treatment for the poor. He also 65. Students were required to work in Buddhist studies, languages and other secular subjects such as history, literature and psychology as well. Ibid, p. 97. 66 Don A. Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu’s Reforms, p. 99. 35. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(40) administrated a free primary school for children of low-income families, donated coffins to families who could not afford them, funded a non-Buddhist social service agency that helped indigent widows, distributed food to needy families on holidays, served meals in fire catastrophes and rescued people and animals in flood crises. In the early 1920s, Taixu also initiated a new program of Buddhist visitation to prisons.67 Although Master Hsing Yun has encountered Ven. Taixu only once in person in 1946, he expresses that Ven. Taixu is a master that he wants to follow, and he profundly agrees with Taixu’s innovative thoughts toward Buddhism.. 政治大. 立. ‧ 國. 學. 3.2 FGS’ Development in Taiwan. After the lifting of martial law and the economic growth of Taiwan, Buddhist sects. ‧. found room to develop themselves and to revitalize Buddhist teaching. FGS, Tzu Chi,. sit. y. Nat. Dharma Drum Mountain, and Chung Tai Chan Monastery are the four very. n. al. er. io. representatives Buddhist groups in Taiwan, and they try to rationalize Buddhist. i n U. v. practices. As many Taiwanese are immigrants from the coastal provinces Guangdong. Ch. engchi. and Fujian, Buddha and their ancestors are the most frequently experienced extraordinary powers by people in Taiwan and people are considerably affected by Buddhist thought and values. Buddhism is one of the main religious beliefs and consumers’ need for “Buddhism” is reflected by the growing numbers of Buddhist temples. According to the Ministry of the Interior, the number of registered Buddhist temples were 2308 in December 2008, and the number of registered Buddhist. 67. Ibid, pp. 61 – 63, 71, 81, 102 – 103. 36. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.

(41) temples has increased 24.17% compared with data from December 1998.68 People’s religious capital has a positive correlation with Buddhism, and Master Hsing Yun has been putting considerable effort into modernizing FGS. Master Hsing Yun established FGS in 1967, and it has over a million members and its members claim to be one of the largest voluntary organizations in the world.69 Master Hsing Yun fled to Taiwan in 1949 and established FGS in 1967 intending to promote Buddhism for the human realm. The establishment of FGS and Master Hsing Yun’s propagation strategies are not merely taking Christianity as a reference to. 治政 innovate Buddhism. Instead, Master Hsing Yun as大 a successor of the idea of 立 ‧ 國. 學. “Humanistic Buddhism” is a reformist, and he seeks changes in Buddhist soteriology and modernism. In Master Hsing Yun’s article, he proposes the modernization of. ‧. Buddhism should cover the following four aspects. They are “…language-. sit. y. Nat. modernization (xiandai yuwenhua 現代語文化), technology-modernization (xiandai. n. al. er. io. kejihua 現代科技化), life-modernization (sheng huo xian dai hua 生活現代化) and. i n U. v. schooling-modernization (xian dai xue xiao hua 現代學校化).”70He puts forward that. Ch. engchi. “…should propagate Buddhist dharma in different languages, language is the bridge for communicating, [we] emphasize English, Japanese, Korean, German, Portuguese, Spanish… etc…. Buddhism will be accepted and known by more people.”, “… Buddhism needs to achieve modernization, using the projector, television, computer, internet, and even online teaching, these could facilitate the spread of Buddhist dharma”, “… most of the modern temples, they don’t just build a Buddha hall or dedicate to a 68. Yen-zen Tsai, Religious Experience in Contemporary Taiwan and China, pp.32, 62 Richard Madsen, Democracy’s Dharma Religious Renaissance and Political Development in Taiwan, p. 51. 70 佛光山開山釋星雲大師，〈佛教的理念佛教現代化〉，adopted 24 May 2019. 69. 37. DOI:10.6814/THE.NCCU.GIRS.003.2019.A03.