The third strategy: Rearranging Information

4.2 Translation Strategies of Topic Chains

4.2.4 The third strategy: Rearranging Information

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To summarize, the second strategy—Establishing Textuality—is employed when the units in a topic chain contain only punctuation marks but no NPs, pronouns nor connectives. Since punctuation marks are weak references for demarcation, translators tend to resort to the internal textual relationship. Based on the internal textual

relationship, the Chinese topic chains are segmented into different units and translated into different English sentences accordingly. This strategy is especially helpful in dealing with typical topic chains, which by definition do not have overt topics in the middle of the chain. This strategy is mainly applied to the four unmarked textual relationships: general-specific and cause-effect, background-foreground and foreground-evaluation.

4.2.4 The third strategy: Rearranging Information

Similar to the second strategy, the third strategy—Rearranging Information—is also observed through analyzing the information packaging in Chinese topic chains and in their English translations. Although in most cases, translators choose to reflect the boundary markers, or establish the textuality with reference to its original internal textual relationship, there are a number of cases in which translators do not

completely keep the markers or the information packaging in the Chinese topic chains.

The third strategy is thus applied.

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The Rearranging Information strategy is achieved by adding, deleting, or

reordering the original information sequence for different considerations. As reviewed in Chapter Two (cf. Table 1 on p.21), translators are allowed some freedom in

translation. Examples found in the data are provided below. Underlined words are added, deleted or reordered.

(15)

(a) 此外，台灣也直接出資參與 Ciwai, Taiwan ye zhijie chuzi canyu In addition Taiwan also directly invest participate 歐銀的投資案i，

Ouyin de touzi-ani

EBRD of investment-project

(a’) In addition to the TC Fund, Taiwan has also made direct investments in EBRD-funded projects.

(b) 這些投資計畫i 的總產出價值 zhexie touzi-jihua de zong chanchu jiazhi these investment-project of total production value 達 38.9 億歐元，

da 38.9 yi Ou-yuan, up-to 3.89 billion Euro-dollar

(b’) Adding in further investment from other countries and

0i chengxiao zhuoyue result outstanding

(c’) The results have thus been outstanding.

(Taiwan Panorama, April, 2013, pp. 42-43)

Example (15) is an instance of addition. Clause (a) introduces the topic touzi-an (投資 案) ‘investment-project.’ This topic appears again in the form of full NP in clause (b),

where further information about the topic is provided. The last clause (c) is an

evaluation for the topic. Then, the foreground-evaluation relationship is established in the English sentences (b’) and (c’). In addition to reflecting the marker in (a’), and

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establishing the evaluation in (c’), the translator also applies the third

strategy—Rearranging Information. Compared with the original clause (b), the English translation (b’) provides more specific information about the investment project. From the data of this type, addition is found with the main purpose of

providing extra explanation, more specific information or information unknown to the target language readers, especially cultural-specific information (e.g. acupuncture in the Chinese medicine).

Below (16) is an example of deletion.

(16)

(a) 為了讓學生吃到 Weile rang xuesheng chi-dao in-order-to let student eat-ASP 原汁原味的異國饗宴，²¹ yuanzhiyuanweide yiguo xiangyan authentic exotic feast 他們_i 曾跑遍市區的摩洛哥 tamen i ceng pao-bian shiqu de Moluoge they once run-wide city of Moroccan 與埃及餐廳試菜，

yu Aiji canting shi-cai, and Egyptian restaurant sample-dish

(a’) For the sake of authenticity, they sample dishes at Moroccan and Egyptian restaurants in the city and seek out exotic foods such as African millet, ostrich meat and mint tea.

(b) 0i並四處張羅非洲小米、

0i bing sichu zhangluo Feizhou xiaomi and everywhere gather African millet 鴕鳥肉、薄荷茶等特殊食材；

tuoniao-rou bohe-cha deng teshu shicai ostrich-meat mint-tea etc. special food

21 This comma marks a preposition phrase.

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and once JIANG discarded class desks chairs 鋸短，改造成可供跪坐的

(b’) They even sawed down some discarded school desks and chairs, repurposing them into Japanese style dining tables so that the children can kneel on mats on the floor as they eat.

(d) 0i這一切的努力，²² 0i zhe yiqiede nuli,

the every effort

都是希望能夠讓學生 dou shi xiwang nenggou rang xuesheng all is hope able make student 有身歷其境的體驗。

you shenliqijingde tiyan.

have like-authentic experience

(Taiwan Panorama, April, 2013, pp. 22-23)

In this example, four ChUs are translated into three EnUs. Clauses (a) and (b) are combined into (a’). Clause (c), with an additive marker ye (也) ‘and,’ is translated to (b’). Clause (d) is deleted from the translation probably because it has similar information to the one in clause (a), which highlights authenticity as the major concern of the school teachers. The translator might have noticed the repetition of ideas and decided to delete it. Apart from repetition, the strategy of deletion is also used when too much similar information is included. Two trimmed examples are given below.

22 This comma marks a noun phrase.

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Tai ji baochi-le jiangxiang-nongyu dianya-xizhi it also keep-ASP smell-rich classic-delicate 協調豐滿、回味悠長等 xietiao-fengman hui-wei-youchang deng balanced-rich back-taste-extensive etc.

貴州茅台酒的獨特風格，…

Guizhou Maotai-jiu de dute fengge, … Guizhou Maotai-liquor POSS unique style

(a’) It possesses the unique style and flavor and is an extensively enjoyable drink.

(A Practical Guide for Business Translation, p. 144)

In example (17), there are five adjectives describing the liquor, including the four sets of four-word adjectives and the general adjective unique. In the English translation, only one of the four sets of adjectives is kept as well as the general adjective.

(18) (a) …

0i靠著之前累積的募款基本盤，

0i Kao-zhe zhiqian leijide mukuan jibenpan depend-ASP previous accumulated fund basis

(a’) …

Using funds raised from regular donors, over the past two months the troupe has put on performances in 10 townships, including Yilan’s Yuanshan and Pingtung’s Hengchun.

(b) 0i兩個月來已走過 0i liang-ge-yue lai yi zou-guo two-CLASS-month over already walk-ASP 宜蘭員山、屏東恆春、嘉義義竹、

Yilan Yuanshan, Pingtung Hengchun, Jiayi Yizhu Yilan Yuanshan Pingtung Hengchun Yiayi Yizhu 新北蘆洲、嘉義竹崎，以及台中大肚、

Xinbei Luzhou, Jiayi Zhuqi, yiji Taichung Dadu, Xinbei Luzhou Jiayi Zhuqi and Taichung Dadu 后里和龍井等鄉鎮。

Houli he Longjing deng xiangzhen Houli and Longjing etc. town

(Taiwan Panorama, April, 2013, pp. 104-105)

In example (18), the Chinese text presents eight locations; however, only two are kept for illustration in the English translation. Examples (17) and (18) demonstrate the

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characteristic repetition and parallel structure of Chinese discourse. This rhetorical style has been proposed by Kaplan (1966) (cf. p. 25 in this book).

In addition to adding and deleting information, translators may reorder the sequences of pieces of information. Example (19) is an example of reordering information.

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Weiyu xi-bei binhai diqu de Hexing Fuxing locate north-west coast area DE Hexing Fuxing 福龍、埔和等 4 所國小i，²³

Fulong Puhe deng 4 suo guoxiaoi

Fulong Puhe etc. 4 CLASS elementary-school 更自組校園有機聯盟，

geng zi-zu xiaoyuan youji lianmeng even self-organize campus organic consortium

(a’) But four Hsinchu elementary schools located along the that serves up healthy, safe organic lunches for their students.

(b) 0i透過聯合採購 0i touguo lianhe caigou through group purchase

及零廚餘的食材控管，

ji ling-chuyu de shicai kongguan, and zero-waste-food of material management

(c’) And, by exploiting the power of group purchases and a

zero-waste food management program, they are doing so on a budget of just NT$32 per meal from the county.

(c) 0i成功讓縣府補助的 0i chenggong rang xian-fu buzhu de successfully make county-gov. subsidize of 32 元午餐，²⁴升級為健康

32 yuan wucan shengji wei jiankang 32 dollar lunch upgrade to healthy 又安全的有機午餐。

you anquande youji wucan and safe organic lunch

(Taiwan Panorama, April, 2013, p. 24)

This example shows both adding and reordering information. Although the three ChUs are translated into three EnUs, the EnUs do not reflect the structure of the ChUs.

Instead, some messages contained in the Chinese information packaging are reordered in the English version. The Chinese topic chain provides the names of the four

23 This comma is a topic marker, not a boundary marker.

24 This comma marks the noun phrase xian-fu buzhu de 32 yuan wucan (縣府補助的 32 元午餐), which is the subject of the embedded clause under the verb rang (讓).

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elementary schools as the topic in the first clause, and then the topic is continued in

the zero form in (b) and (c). The English translation, however, does not introduce the names of the four schools in the first clause. A general term “four Hsinchu elementary schools” is used as the sentence subject and then the description “doing something even more interesting with their lunches” is added in clause (a’). Clause (a’) and clauses (b’)-(c’) thus form a general-specific textual relationship. Unlike the Chinese version, the English translation brings in the specific names of the schools in clause (b’). Such an arrangement is to make the information packaging in line with the English general-specific rhetoric. Also in clause (b’), a relative clause is used. The information in the relative clause originally appears in the end of the Chinese topic chain, but it is preposed to clause (b’). From this example, we can see in Chinese rhetorics, detailed description would go before the main idea. In contrast, the English rhetoric introduces the main idea first then the supporting details (Cai, 1993; Kaplan, 1966; Fathman & Kobayashi, 1984; Matalene, 1985). Thus, the reordering in English translation might be intended to fit the English rhetoric principle.

Table 12 is the distribution of each type of Rearranging Information found in the data.

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Table 12

Numbers of Topic Chains Showing Use of Rearranging Information

Types of Rearranging Information Magazine Textbooks Total

(1) reorder information 4 2 6

(2) add information 4 0 4

(3) delete information 3 1 4

(4) add info. + reorder info. 2 0 2

(5) delete info. + reorder info. 1 0 1

Total 14 3 17

Among the total 58 topic chains, only 17 (29%) show the use of Rearranging

Information. Compared with the 100% occurrence of Reflecting the Markers and 36%

appearance of Establishing Textuality found in the topic chains, Rearranging

Information is less preferred by the translators. In addition, the magazine data show more uses of this strategy than the textbook data. One possible reason is the nature of the magazine data. Taiwan Panorama is a magazine that reports Taiwan-related stories. Some local Taiwan stories might be unfamiliar to their English readers, so deletion and addition is required from time to time when the text is translated into English.

In a nutshell, the third strategy—Rearranging Information—is adopted when the translator chooses not to keep the original markers or textual relationship. The

translator would add, delete or reorder the information for a variety of concerns, including readers’ background knowledge, amount of information and the difference between Chinese and English rhetoric principles.

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4.3 Summary

In this chapter, we have presented a general description of the data and three strategies found via comparing the Chinese topic chains and their English translations.

All the six types of topic chains discussed in Chapter Two are found in the data. The magazine data contain more types of topic chains than the textbook data. We have found that a Chinese topic chain is usually translated into two or three English sentences and that ChUs tend to be combined into one EnU in the process of translation.

In order to find out how ChUs are translated, the researcher has compared the linguistic markers, textual relationship, and information packaging in Chinese topic chains with those in the English translations. Three topic chain translation strategies have been found. The first strategy—Reflecting the Markers—is crucial. It is used in every topic chain. The boundary in Chinese topic chains would be indicated by three types of linguistic markers: nominal references of topic, connectives, and punctuation marks. Nominal references and connectives are found to be stronger references for discourse demarcation than punctuation marks. The more markers appear at a boundary, the more likely the gap is reflected in English. The second

strategy—Establishing Textuality—is adopted when the boundary is only marked by the weak punctuation marks. In some topic chains, the clauses present a parallel

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structure but the semantic relations between clauses are actually not parallel. The internal textual relationship is taken as a reference for demarcation in the English translation. This strategy has been found to deal with four types of textual

relationships: general-specific, cause-effect, background-foreground and

foreground-evaluation. The third strategy—Rearranging Information—is adopted when the translator does not keep the original linguistic markers, textual relationship or information packaging. This strategy can be realized by adding, deleting, or reordering information. Translators would adopt this strategy for various concerns, including readers’ background knowledge, information amount, and the difference between Chinese and English rhetorical principles.

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Chapter Five

Conclusion 5.1 Summary of the Present Study

This thesis aims to explore the Chinese-English translation strategies of Chinese topic chains, with a focus on the demarcation mechanisms at the discourse level.

Previous research has indicated that Chinese is a discourse-oriented language (Tsao 1979) and that English is a subject-prominent language (Li & Thompson, 1976). A Chinese sentence can be as short as one clause or two clauses; however, it can be several clauses linked together, known as a topic chain (Tsao 1979). The clauses may appear parallel in syntactic structure, but semantically, some clauses are more closely related than the others. This difference between the Chinese and the English language poses difficulty to translators. The parallel Chinese sentences with hierarchical meaning cannot find identical syntactic structures in English, a language that adopts complex non-parallel syntactic structure in presenting hierarchical meaning. A question arises: How do translators translate a Chinese topic chain, a discourse unit, into English sentences?

To answer this question, translation data are collected for analysis. The Chinese texts are compared with their English translations. After the linguistic markers, textual relationships, and information packaging in both Chinese topic chains and their

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English translations are analyzed, three translation strategies have been found:

Reflecting the Markers, Establishing Textuality and Rearranging Information. The first strategy is to reflect the boundary markers in the Chinese topic chains as

demarcation points in English translation. The nominal references and connectives are stronger references for demarcation than punctuation marks. The second

strategy—Establishing Textuality—is to reflect the internal textual relationship of a Chinese topic chain. With limited references of punctuation marks as boundary markers, the translator has to demarcate a topic chain into different units based on the internal textual relationships. The third strategy—Rearranging Information—is to add, delete, or reorder the information. This strategy is the least adopted among the three.

5.2 Pedagogical Implications

It is suggested that topic chain translation should receive more attention than single-clause translation in translation pedagogy. As the present study shows,

translating a Chinese topic chain is quite different from translating a single-clause or a two-clause Chinese sentence. Topic chain translation requires not only vocabulary and syntactic knowledge, but also discourse and culture knowledge. However, most translation textbooks (Liao et al., 2003; Liu, 1993; Si, 1982; Zhang, 1979; Zhang, Yu, Li & Pong, 1993; Zhou, 1996) merely put their emphasis on Chinese single-clause or

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two-clause translation, instead of topic chain translation.

In teaching translation, teachers are encouraged to consider more dimensions in treating translation units. In the translation of a single-clause or a two-clause Chinese sentence, the focus would be vocabulary and sentence patterns. However, in

translating a topic chain, mere semantic and syntactic knowledge is insufficient for students. More aspects should be taken into consideration. First, discourse knowledge plays an important role in topic chain translation. According to the findings in the present study, the discourse functions of nominal forms, connectives and punctuation marks play crucial roles. These markers, however, are usually treated by ESL learners as syntactic markers (Yu, 2010). It is suggested that teachers should make the

discourse functions of these markers explicit to students. In addition, students should be taught to identify the textual relationships among Chinese parallel clauses. As Kwan (1997) has observed, students tend to translate Chinese clauses into parallel structures. This is probably because they are not aware of the implicit hierarchical textual relationships behind the clauses. An outline practice would probably help students find out a larger structure in the discourse.

In addition to discourse knowledge, culture knowledge also plays a part in

translating a Chinese topic chain into English. English rhetoric principles are different from those in Chinese. Reordering information is sometimes needed in translation in

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order to meet the English rhetorics. However, the rhetoric principles are implicit.

They are not easily observed by students. Thus, teachers are suggested to make students aware of the contrastive differences. A comparison task between a Chinese passage and its translation like what is done in the present study might be able to raise students’ awareness of the differences.

The present study proposes a set of specific strategies for translation. Translation standards have long been referred to the three three-word maxim xin (信)

‘faithfulness,’ da (達) ‘expressiveness,’ and ya (雅) ‘elegance.’ But the three words are too abstract to operate during the translation process. The results in the present study provide guidelines on the discourse level for xin (信) ‘faithfulness’ and da (達)

‘expressiveness’. Faithfulness can be realized by the first and the second strategy.

However, sometimes, in order to maintain expressiveness, translators would choose to sacrifice faithfulness. Information in the original text may be added, deleted or

reordered to help the readers better understand the translation. Translation is often viewed as an art because it takes some creativity (Wu, 2009; Zhou, 1996). The three strategies identified in the present study should only serve as a basic guideline for translators but not confine translators’ creativity in the use of language.

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5.3 Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

There are some limitations in the present study. First, the number of topic chains collected for analysis is far from sufficient. For a more detailed study, larger data is needed. Second, the sources of data are quite limited, too. In the present study, only

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