Theoretical Background

2.5.1 Self-concept and Academic Achievement

According to Chien et al. (2008), the relationship between self-concept and academic achievements can be generally divided into three models, namely the skill

development model, the self-enhancement model, and the reciprocal effects model. The scholars supporting the skill development model suggest that students’ academic performance or performance in academic fields will affect their self-concept (Pottebaum et al., 1986). The self-enhancement model investigates the effects of self-concept on academic achievement (Wigfield & Karpathian, 1991). The reciprocal effect model (REM), supported by most scholars, suggests that self-concept and academic achievement have a reciprocal cause and influence (Guay et al., 2003). Self-concept is molded by ability and performance, and it is also an important variable affecting learning achievement (Pajares & Schunk, 2001).

DeFraine et al. (2007) proposed that the causal direction of academic self-concept and achievement will vary with age. The academic self-concept of younger students is more likely to be influenced by school performance. By the time when students enter higher grades, their academic self-concept and achievement are more likely to be influenced by each other. Marsh and Köller (2004) proposed the Unification Model to examine the reciprocal causality between academic performance and self-concept. The research results showed that the self-concept in a field can improve academic achievement; however, the self-concept in different fields can mildly inhibit academic achievement. Goldberg and Cornell(1998)found thatstudents’intrinsic motivation and self-concept have a significant and correlated influence on academic achievement.

Goldberg and Cornell developed a feedback model among the academic achievements, self-concept, and motivation of students. When students have an aggressive self-opinion, they can obtain higher achievements. When students’ achievements are higher, their self-concept and motivation can increase. As a result, these variables form a feedback loop.Purkey (1970)indicated thatan individual’srolein a group,regarding whether he/she is valued, accepted and easily approached, possesses leadership, as well as his/her achievements in class and academic performance from the perspective of other students,

tends to leave a scar that may not easily disappear in his/her self-image. To students, the overall self-concept has a significant influence on academic achievement. Academic achievements and self-concept have a reciprocal cause and effect. The smoothness of academiclearning can increasestudents’self-esteem and self-confidence. Moreover, the feedback influence can lead to a better performance in various aspects. It can be inferred that self-concept is closely related to academic achievement. Marsh and Yeung (1997) found thatstudents’academicself-concept will affect their future academic achievements, and academic achievements will also significantly affect their academic self-concept.

Therefore, self-concept and academic achievement affect each other.

2.5.2 Social Support and Academic Achievement

Previous studies have both suggested that social support is a very important variable with many positive effects. Widoff (1999) conducted a study on the learning experiences of 397 college and graduate school students, and found the origins of support for adult students to be peers, friends and families. Among these, peers and friends provide encouragement or substantial assistance and play the role of helping students relieve their emotions. Students could provide instructions on learning, suggestions on course selection, and advising professor selection.

Numerous studies have indicated that social support is related to academic achievement among university students. The study by Roman et al. (2008) presents an initial step into the analysis of the influence of self-esteem, peer and teacher expectations, as well as the effects of family support on academic achievement through learning approaches. Data were gathered from 553 university students from different departments of a Spanish university. The analysis, through structural equation modeling, provided support for the positive effects of self-esteem and family support in university students' learning and achievement. Peer and teacher expectations increased both surface learning

and applied effort. Hymel et al. (1996) provided evidence that peer support may also contribute to children’s achievement because it has a profound influence on their day-to-day behavior at school. Frentz et al. (1991) showed that students who are rejected by their peers have lower academic scores than do more popular students. Another study found that the perceptions of supportive relations with teachers are related to greater academic achievement, higher levels of student engagement, less problematic behaviors, and more positive peer relations (Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Skinner et al., 2008).

2.5.3 Academic Achievement and Occupational Choice Intention

To many university students, seeking a good job is the main objective after graduation. A good education provides students with more employment opportunities and cultivates students’ abilities to make significant contributions to their chosen fields (Chuang et al., 2009). According to the Wisconsin model developed by Sewell and Hauser (1980), for students with better academic performances, the expectations from parents and teachers are higher, and this increases their education and career ambitions.

The better the academic performance is, the higher the ambitions for education and career will be. One factor forcareerand educationalplanning thatmay overlap with aproblem’s severity is a student’s educational and occupational aspiration level. This issue is expressed in the sense that the higher a student's aspirations are, the more challenging it will be to successfully attain those aspired careers and education levels (Raviv et al., 2000;

Sheffield et al., 2004). Therefore, students’ expectations and ambitions for career are correlated with their education levels.

2.5.4 Self-concept, Social Support and Occupational Choice Intention

According to Betz (1994), Super's theory of career development is the notion of self-concept. Self-concept is basically how individuals picture themselves (Super, 1957).

The development of the career stage is the development and practice of self-concept. It is defined as “the constellation of self attributes considered by the individual to be vocationally relevant” (Super, 1963, p. 20). Super (1963) suggested that individuals attempt to implement their self-concept through career choices. Given the breadth of Super's construct (Betz, 1994), one's self-concept may also include beliefs about one's image, personal appearance, and physical attractiveness. Perceptions of one's image may influence beliefs about which occupations will allow for the implementation of the self-concept.

Super (1980) proposed the career development model, which emphasizes the continuity of career development. The career development of an individual is divided into five stages: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and declination.

Context-associated adaptive behaviors will be developed at each stage. The growth stage is the initial stage of career development, where individuals start to develop a self-concept through the recognition from and interactions with significant others, such as parents and friends. With the increase in age, individuals gradually take into account the meaning of interests and abilities through the actual participation in various events and the accumulation of experiences. The exploration stage includes adolescence and adulthood, and it covers the college period. Individuals explore themselves, roles, and careers through schools, work experiences and interpersonal interactions, in order to further develop a sense of preference for career and gradually realize their objectives. The establishment stage is the stage to confirm stability. After individuals find an appropriate career, they tend to become stabilized in the career, start to approve of it and seek for progress in it, in order to establish a professional status and increase the opportunity for promotion.

A consistent conclusion of the correlation between social support and occupational choice intention has not been reached in relevant studies. The amount of received social

support (e.g., information/advice, encouragement, feedback from worksite supervisors, school staff, mentoring) during the school years is vital to students, as decisions concerning educational and career pursuits may appear daunting and confusing (Hoy &

Miskel, 2001).

The career development theory proposed by Super (1994) provides a conceptual framework to investigate the process of human career development. According to the theory, the college period is the late period of the exploration stage of career development, and the main task is to increase self-perception through various exploratory activities to further clarify the direction of career development, establish specific career planning, develop self-concept and occupational concept, and prepare for entry into the job market.

However, the abilities and personality traits required by each career are different, allowing individuals to engage in different careers and allowing people with different personalities to engage in the same career. During the college period, because students are planning to enter the job market, they will attach more importance to the challenges of the real society, and further intend to fulfill their individual self-concept, establish accurate occupational concepts, cultivate an accurate working attitude, and increase their specific understanding of the working world.